Bulletin No. 101

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

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Member Update- BULLETIN

Editorial Committee: Ahilleas Adamantiades, Alex Economides, Maria-Eleftheria Giatrakou, Dean C. Lomis, Katherine Efthymiatou-Stabile, Contributing Editor: Evangelos Calamitsis, Acting Editor: Constantine Efthymiou

No. 101, June, 2012

A Necessary Explanation Owed to  the Hellenic Link Members

The Hellenic Link Bulletin is asking the HL members for forgiveness of the belated circulation of the present issue caused by a recent illness that required extensive hospitalization of the Bulletin’s Acting Editor. While we are deeply sorry for this inconvenience, we wish also to express our sincere thanks and gratitude to the members and co-workers, who made extra efforts in this trying period to fulfill their commitment to their Hellenic Link Projects to which consistently they have been making significant contributions.

 

Professor Dimitrios Oreopoulos Transcends to Eternity

With profound sorrow we bring to the members of the Hellenic Link and our readers the announcement that HL Board Member, Advisory Council on Greek Education Member, and Contributing Editor of this Bulletin Dimitrios Oreopoulos, M.D., Ph.D., has passed away. The sad news came to us in the following message from Mrs. Nancy Oreopoulos, who highlights in it his life, outstanding career and his courageous encounter with terminal illness:

It is with deep sadness that we announce the passing of Dr. Dimitrios Oreopoulos M.D.(Athens), Ph.D.(Belfast), FRCPC, FACP, FRCP(Glasgow). He passed away peacefully April 25, 2012 at Etobicoke General Hospital after a courageous battle with cancer. Born: May 24, 1936 in Alexandroupolis, Greece.

 

 

 

 

 

Survived by his wife Nancy (nee Hooker), and father of George, Philip, Antigone, and John. Devoted ‘Papou’ to Dimitrios, Constantine, Lukas, and Nicole.

Dr. Oreopoulos was a Nephrologist and Professor of Medicine at the University of Toronto. He worked at the Toronto Western Hospital (University Health Network) since 1969 and devoted his career to improving the lives of patients with kidney disease through the development of innovative treatments and mentorship of over 100 Nephrologists from around the world. Dr. Oreopoulos was most interested in the compassionate care of patients and founded the Humane Medicine Journal devoted to studying and writing about the ethical care of patients. His humanitarian endeavors continued in the Greek community as a former President of the Hellenic Home for the Aged (1987-1995), Greek Orthodox Education in Ontario (1996-2001), and Athens Villa (1997-2004). He carried out his work with great humility, faith in God and a strong belief in the intrinsic worth of all human beings.


 

 

 

 

Visitors will be received at the Glendale Visitation Centre: 1810 Albion Road, Toronto M9W 5T1 Sunday, April 29, 2012 (2:00 pm – 4:00 pm and 6:00 pm – 9:00 pm) and Funeral Mass at Prophet Elias Church 1785 Matheson Blvd., Mississauga, Monday, April 30, 2012 (10:00 am – 11:00 am), Burial: Glenview Memorial Gardens 7541 Highway #50, Woodbridge, ON L4L 1A5

In lieu of flowers, please make donations to Princess Margaret Hospital / William Osler Health Centre – Etobicoke Site / Kidney Foundation of Canada / Prophet Elias Church
or the Dimitrios Oreopoulos’ charity for indigent patients: “Humane Medicine Journal Inc.”

A memorial page will honor the memory of Dr. Dimitrios Oreopoulos. Loving father, husband, mentor, innovator and humanitarian.

http://www.facebook.com/DGOreopoulos

Sincerely,

Nancy Oreopoulos

The President of the Hellenic Link responded with the following message of condolences:


April 30, 2012

Mrs. Nancy Oreopoulos                                                                                                                              Etobikoke, Ontario, Canada


Dear Mrs. Oreopoulos:


It was with  deep sense of grief that we have learned from your message that our precious friend and co-worker Dimitrios has passed away. For me and for our colleagues in the Hellenic Link, Inc. he was a source of lively wisdom, moral support and inspiration that always strengthened us during the course of our long brotherly cooperation. Now, without his presence and concerned input, we feel poorer, indeed.

May God repose his soul and his memory be eternal!

We share your pain for his loss and pray to God that He soothes it by offering you and all members of your admirable family abiding consolation. We praise with admiration his great and diverse accomplishments in life: in raising with you a wonderful family; in using his extraordinary scientific and professional skills to profoundly benefit a multitude of suffering fellow-human beings as well as to upgrade a host of mentored peers; in practicing his Greek Orthodox Faith with exemplary love towards everyone. Dimitrios has left behind a rich legacy for his children and grand children to be proud of; and to a much broader circle of people, whose life he touched,also an obliging legacy “to do likewise,” emulating his altruistic benevolent commitment!

With the deepest esteem, love and gratitude,

Until we meet again, we bid dearest Dimitrios Godspeed!

For the Hellenic Link, Inc.,

Costas Efthymiou, Ph. D.

President


The BOD and Advisory Council Members of the HL, unable to join Dimitrios’ family at the funeral rites, decided to send in lieu of flowers a donation to the charity of his creation and choice; “ Humane Medical Journal, Inc.” (200 Elizabeth Str., 6 EN room 214, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5G 2C4). We are informed that in addition to studying and writing about issues of ethical care of patients, this Journal quietly helps underprivileged patients to cover the costs of medications, transportation, or other things they cannot afford. In addition, this Charity funds nursing and medical student scholarships (especially the Greek Medical students who belong to the Hellenic Medical Association of Toronto).

The Bulletin suggests to those who wish to honor the memory of Dr. Oreopoulos to make their donation to this or one of the other charities mentioned above in the message of Mrs. Oreopoulos .

Recent Hellenic Link Activities in the Field of Hellenic Education

We are pleased to report progress in the following projects, all concerned with pivotal needs of Hellenic Education in America:

  • The ad hoc collaborative Task Force of Educators, formed under the auspices of the Hellenic Link, Inc.(Bull.No.90, October 2010), has continued its concerted effort to develop National Standards for the teaching of Modern Greek in the United States of America. The TF, coordinated by Dr. Vasiliki Tsigas-Fotinis, was an active participant at the 2011 Annual Conference of the American Council of Teachers of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), held in Denver CO last November. In a substantive interaction between ACTFL and TF, it was decided to reorient the basic structure of the “Standards’ from the basis of school grades K through 16 to three proficiency ranges of language learners: the novices, the intermediate, and the advanced learners. The TF immediately started to revise its drafted document to conform to the new, more flexible and functional pattern. Following the November Conference, the TF planned a series of working sessions at different locations in the country, for the advancement and completion of its mandated task. Thus, a meeting was held at Wilmington. DE during the weekend of March 8-10, 2012 . As very helpful host for this meeting served the Odyssey Charter School which as previously reported, contributes to the work of the TF with educators/members on its teaching staff. The main purpose of this meeting was to review and revise the working draft of the Standards Document with the able guidance and assistance of Dr. June K. Phillips, Dean Emeritus, College of Arts & Humanities, Weber State University and former President of the ATCFL, as well as of staff members of the Department of Education of the State of Delaware. Another goal was to use the occasion to familiarize Greek teachers working in the tri-state area of DE/PA/NJ with the scope of the National Standards and the task of the TF on Modern Greek.

A TF meeting in Madison, WI on April 26-29, coincided with the Annual Conference of NCOTCL (National Council of Less-Taught Languages). There, the TF reviewed and edited its Standards Document and its appended Modern Greek Teaching Scenarios, and updated its Timeline and goals. The Document, already in an advanced and plausible stage of development was further “tuned” for successive submissions to teams of Reviewers and “Modern Greek Council of Advisors” for corrections, enrichment and finalization. This process is already taking place.

At the NCOTCL Conference, members of the TF participated in a panel for the Modern Greek Language.

Still, another working session was scheduled for June 8-10, 2012 at Stanford University, where the 1st National Conference of MGLTA (Modern Greek Language Teachers Association) will take place. The TF work again will be assisted by ACTFL.

The finished Standards Document, as received from the Council of Advisors, will be posted for feedback commentary by the professional community and the community at large on the websites of the Hellenic Link, Inc. and of other Associations during the summer. Also, early in the summer,

the TF will submit the Document to ACTFL for approval at its Annual Conference, to be held in Philadelphia PA, November 16-18, 2012.

The TF is preparing to invite to the Philadelphia Conference as many Greek teachers as possible. For this purpose, they have composed an informational brochure, which will be also used at the ACTFL Conference to kick off a broader public effort in support of Modern Greek learning.

The brochure and the public campaign will be set off with the motto: “Modern Greek: A Living Classic.” In support of this TF most worthy effort, we offer to our readers a preview of their brochure below in this Bulletin as an attachment.

The anticipated approval of the “National Modern Greek Standards” by ACTFL will mark the successful completion of the Task Force Mission.


  • The Advisory Council generates a new study-group to advance Hellenic Education in America

While the eventual introduction of Modern Greek to American Schools comes closer with fair speed thanks to the positive interaction between the  TF and the ACTFL, the Greek community at large along with the community of Greek educators remain gravely concerned about the lack of a steady and credible source of qualified Greek teachers for Greek schooling in America. It is relevant to note that the dispatch of teachers on short-term assignment by the Greek Ministry of Education, the

usual  albeit meager source, has been drastically curtailed under the problematic fiscal conditions currently prevailing in Greece without promise for an early resolution. On the other hand, it is a fact that none of over 80 US/Canadian universities and colleges sponsoring Hellenic Studies has an academic program to train certified teachers of Modern Greek language and culture! In response to this glaring need, the HL Council consistent with its long-term policies and developmental activities has decided at one of its recent meetings to tackle the issue within the limits of the Hellenic Link capabilities. The Council activated a sub-committee consisting of its own members to initiate a detailed study of the factors and parameters bearing on the introduction and viability of a relevant interdisciplinary academic program of teacher training in the present economic and academic environment of the U.S. Members of this study-group include competent academic administrators and faculty.

The Bulletin wishes to thank the members of the Council for their most meaningful undertaking and wish them every success in carrying on. We remind our readers of a similar endeavor undertaken

a few years back by the Council, led by the late Dr. Alice Scourby. That dedicated effort based on a grant proposal did not meet with success. We hope and pray that the new effort, in due course, will increase awareness and proactive interest in the community to become involved and do its part in  upgrading the structure of Hellenic Education in the country as vitally needed.

  • In another major generic project: “Modular Teaching of Hellenic Cultural Themes,” the Advisory Council has focused its endeavors to materialize first the instructional unit: “Byzantium: the missing link for understanding the history of Western Civilization,” a topic deemed to be covered scantily in the curricula of Greek as well as of U.S. schools. The purpose of this specific undertaking is to develop a Resource Guide for teacher and student- use in high and middle schools (grades 6-12). Two key characteristics of the Guide being developed are: the use of documented research to support the teaching content and the latter’s relevance to national and state subject-area standards (such as the Common Core, established by the U.S. Department of Education). To co-author this innovative Guide have been invited experts, well versed in the history and accomplishments of the Byzantine Civilization, and experienced educators with appropriate pedagogical grounding teaching in U.S. schools. On last report, a number of authors have agreed to contribute to the project under the guidance of Dr. Constantine Hatzidimitriou, a Byzantine scholar with the Department of Education of the City of New York and a member of the Advisory Council of HL. In addition to members of the Advisory Council, scholars of the Hellenic Research Foundation, of the US/Canadian academic communities and of the U.S. Byzantine Studies Association, together with U.S classroom-educators are converging to produce the Guide  which, we are firmly convinced, will represent an original educational aid of immense cultural significance. In view of the educational importance and the size of the overall project, it is hoped that governmental agencies and benevolent foundations will be interested in supporting its development and completion.

On the educational developments reported above, the Hellenic Link, Inc. is exceedingly happy to observe that its persistent, over the years, pioneering efforts to nurture a culture of voluntary collaborations among fellow-Hellene Professionals has started bearing fruits for the common ethnic and national good. Let us all be grateful to those begetting this cultural renaissance and be ready to follow in the roads being opened for a lasting future.

CJE

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CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD

PDF BROCHURE

ON

 

NATIONAL STANDARDS

 FOR MODERN GREEK

 LANGUAGE EDUCATION


—————————————————————————-

On-Line Course in Modern Greek Offered Free

In cooperation with the Institute for Language and Speech Processing (ILSP)/

“Athena” Research  Center, the Hellenic Link, Inc. is offering as a service to the community a series of Greek language lCATIONessons on its Web site: http://www.helleniclink.org ( on a 24/7 schedule)

On the home page of the site, upper left corner, click on “Learning Greek,

to be introduced to a series of fifteen lessons of the filoglossia+ courseware.

Please inform anyone who would be interested in learning Greek of this service.

THE HELLENIC LINK,  Inc.

A NON PROFIT CULTURAL AND SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION

OF HELLENES AND PHILHELLENES

INCORPORATED IN DELAWARE

Suite No. 278, 38-11 Ditmars Blvd, Astoria, New York 11105

Web Site: http://www.helleniclink.org Email: info@helleniclink.org

Contact Telephone: (718) 217- 0430




Γέννηση Πολιτισμού

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles


ΠΕΡΙ ΤΗΣ ΓΕΝΝΗΣΗΣ ΤΟΥ ΑΡΧΑΙΟΥ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟΥ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΜΟΥ: ΜΙΑ ΕΡΜΗΝΕΙΑ

Βασίλης Καρασμάνης

Καθηγητής Φιλοσοφίας, Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο


Οι σκέψεις που ακολουθούν είναι προϊόν ενός προβληματισμού των τελευταίων 15-20 χρόνων σε σχέση με το πρόβλημα της γέννησης του ελληνικού πολιτισμού. Από τις παλαιές αντιλήψεις Γερμανών λογίων περί του «ελληνικού θαύματος» μέχρι διάφορες ‘σύγχρονες’ απόψεις που υποστηρίζουν την έλλειψη πρωτοτυπίας του ελληνικού πολιτισμού και υπερτονίζουν τις οφειλές των Ελλήνων σε παλιότερους πολιτισμούς πολλά έχουν γραφεί. Ωστόσο το πρόβλημα της γέννησης του ελληνικού πολιτισμού παραμένει και συνεχίζει να είναι ένα από τα δυσκολότερα ιστορικά αλλά και θεωρητικά προβλήματα. Είναι κοινός τόπος να λέμε ότι ο σύγχρονος δυτικός πολιτισμός στηρίχθηκε πάνω στον αρχαίο ελληνικό πολιτισμό. Θεωρούμε ότι σε κάποια μικρή χρονική περίοδο, από τα τέλη του εβδόμου αιώνα π.Χ. έως και τον έκτο αιώνα π.Χ., σε ένα μικρό μέρος της Μεσογείου πραγματοποιήθηκαν από τον μικρό ελληνικό λαό επιτεύγματα που σφράγισαν όλο τον μετέπειτα παγκόσμιο πολιτισμό, όπως η φιλοσοφία, η επιστήμη, τα μαθηματικά, το αλφάβητο, η τέχνη, το θέατρο, η λογοτεχνία, η πολιτική, η ιστορία, ο αθλητισμός και άλλα. Υπάρχουν όμως και μελετητές που θεωρούν ότι όλα σχεδόν τα παραπάνω (με πιθανή εξαίρεση το θέατρο) τα βρίσκουμε – σε μια πρώιμη ίσως μορφή τους – και σε προελληνικούς πολιτισμούς. Τελικά, πράγματι οφείλουμε στους Έλληνες όλα αυτά; Ποιό είναι το χρέος των Ελλήνων στους παλαιότερους πολιτισμούς και ποια η δική τους πρωτοτυπία; Υπάρχει κάτι, κάποιος παράγοντας, η εμφάνιση του οποίου στην ελληνική κοινωνία να προκάλεσε την άνθιση σε όλους αυτούς τους τομείς; Θα προσπαθήσω να δώσω κάποιες πρώτες απαντήσεις και ελπίζω ότι οι αυτές σκέψεις, αν αποδειχθούν γόνιμες, θα εξελιχθούν σε ένα ευρύτερο ερευνητικό πρόγραμμα που θα συνεισφέρει σημαντικά στην ερμηνεία του φαινομένου του ελληνικού πολιτισμού.


* * *

 

Ένας παλαιός λόγιος ο H. D. F. Kitto, στην εισαγωγή του βιβλίου του Οι Έλληνες[1] γράφει: «Σε κάποιο μέρος μέρος του κόσμου που που από αιώνες είχε αναπτύξει πολιτισμό, και αρκετά υψηλό, εμφανίστηκε σταδιακά ένας λαός, όχι πολυπληθής, όχι πολύ ισχυρός, ούτε με κάποια καλή οργάνωση, που είχε μια τελείως διαφορετική αντίληψη για την ανθρώπινη ζωή, και που για πρώτη φορά έδειξε το σκοπό του ανθρώπινου πνεύματος». Τι εννοεί ο Kitto; Ποιος είναι ο σκοπός του ανθρώπινου πνεύματος; Ανεξάρτητα όμως της απάντησης στα παραπάνω ερωτήματα, ένα πράγμα είναι βέβαιο. Ότι το βασικό χαρακτηριστικό των πρώτων Ελλήνων φιλοσόφων και επιστηνόνων είναι ο ορθολογισμός.

Οι Ίωνες φυσικοί φιλόσοφοι πρώτοι ανακάλυψαν τον κόσμο της θεωρητικής σκέψης αντικαθιστώντας το μύθο με τον λόγο.  Ο ορθολογισμός τους συνίσταται κυρίως  στο γεγονός ότι για πρώτη φορά στην ανθρώπινη ιστορία μυθικές εξηγήσεις αντικαταστάθηκαν από θεωρία υποστηριζόμενη από επιχειρήματα. Η γέννηση της επιστήμης και της φιλοσοφίας στην αρχαία Ελλάδα σημαδεύεται, από την άρνηση της διάκρισης ανάμεσα σε δύο είδη γνώσης, την εμπειρική και την θεϊκή ή αποκαλυπτική, και αντίστοιχα σε δύο επίπεδα ύπαρξης, το φυσικό και το υπερφυσικό. Με τους πρώτους Έλληνες φιλόσοφους το υπερφυσικό επίπεδο καταργείται και γίνεται προσπάθεια να εξηγηθεί ο κόσμος χωρίς αναφορά σε θεϊκές και υπερφυσικές δυνάμεις, αλλά με βάση ενιαίες φυσικές αρχές.  Έτσι οντολογία, κοσμολογία και αστρονομία βρίσκονται σε αδιάσπαστη ενότητα.  Το πέρασμα από τη μυθική στην επιστημονική εξήγηση χαρακτηρίζεται από τα εξής: α) φυσικές κανονικότητες ή νόμοι, χρησιμοποιούνται αντί της θεϊκής βούλησης και του υπερφυσικού για να εξηγηθεί η φύση και τα φαινόμενα.  β) Η γέννηση και σύσταση του κόσμου ανάγεται σε φυσικά στοιχεία και τις μεταβολές τους.  γ) Η εξήγηση του κόσμου συνοδεύεται από κοσμικά μοντέλα, τα οποία, αντίθετα από τις μυθικές εξηγήσεις, σχηματίζονται από γεωμετρικά σχήματα.

Αν ανθρωπόμορφοι, ζωόμορφοι ή άλλου είδους θεοί είναι τα αίτια του κόσμου και των φυσικών φαινομένων, τότε και οι μορφές που χρησιμοποιούνται στις μυθικές εξηγήσεις είναι αντίστοιχες. Έτσι ο Άτλας κρατά στις πλάτες του τη γη, οι διάφοροι αστερισμοί είναι άνθρωποι, ζώα ή αντικείμενα που οι θεοί τα έστειλαν εκεί, κλπ.  Αντίθετα, με την υπαγωγή του υπερφυσικού στο φυσικό και την τάση για εύρεση φυσικών κανονικοτήτων, οδηγούμαστε στη χρήση απλών γεωμετρικών μορφών και σχημάτων για την εξήγηση του κόσμου.  Έτσι η κοσμογονία και κοσμολογία των πρώτων Ελλήνων φυσικών φιλοσόφων δένεται αδιάσπαστα με τη μαθηματική (γεωμετρική) αστρονομία.  Η προηγμένη βαβυλωνιακή αστρονομία ήταν μάλλον αστρολογία και εξαντλείτο σε συστηματικές παρατηρήσεις αστέρων και πίνακες  καταγραφής ανατολής και δύσης αστέρων. Δεν υπήρξε προσπάθεια να βρεθεί μοντέλο εξήγησης των ουρανίων σωμάτων μέσω κανονικών και ομοιόμορφων κινήσεων.  Η ελληνική αστρονομία προχωρεί σε τέτοιες εξηγήσεις του κόσμου μέσω γεωμετρικών μοντέλων. Όχι μόνο αυτό, αλλά οι πρώτοι φιλόσοφοι στηρίζουν τα κοσμολογικά τους μοντέλα στην παρατήρηση και τα υποστηρίζουν μέσω επιχειρημάτων.


Η χρήση επιχειρημάτων είναι το σημαντικότερο στοιχείο του ορθολογισμού των πρώτων Ελλήνων φιλοσόφων και επιστημόνων και η κυριότερη ίσως προσφορά τους στον ανθρώπινο πολιτισμό. Οι απόψεις, τους ανεξάρτητα από το πόσο τις θεωρούμε αληθείς ή όχι, υποστηρίχτηκαν από επιχειρήματα και στηρίχτηκαν πάνω στην εμπειρία. Αλλά, όπως άλλωστε υποστηρίζει και ο Αριστοτέλης, κάθε απόδειξη, κάθε επιχείρημα και κάθε συλλογισμός αναγκαστικά χρησιμοποιεί καθολικές έννοιες. Τούτο συμβαίνει γιατί σε κάθε συλλογιστικό ή αποδεικτικό σχήμα πρέπει να υπάρχει τουλάχιστον μία μείζον ή μεγάλη προκείμενη, η οποία προφανώς περιέχει καθολικές έννοιες. Διαφορετικά δεν μπορεί να εξαχθεί κάποιο συμπέρασμα. Δηλαδή, χωρίς γενικές ή καθολικές έννοιες[2] δεν είναι δυνατόν να έχουμε απόδειξη, επιχείρημα και κατ’ επέκταση θεωρητική επιστήμη. Γιατί, όπως πάλι επιμένει ο Αριστοτέλης «η (θεωρητική) επιστήμη είναι αποδεικτική». Στην περιοχή των μαθηματικών η ορθολογικότητα εκδηλώνεται με την εισαγωγή από τους πρώτους ΄Έλληνες φιλοσόφους και επιστήμονες της μαθηματικής απόδειξης.

Η βασική διαφορά ανάμεσα στις προτάσεις των Ελλήνων μαθηματικών και σ’ αυτές των Βαβυλώνιων ή των Αιγυπτίων είναι ότι οι πρώτες είναι γενικές προτάσεις, ενώ οι τελευταίες είναι επιμέρους. Έτσι, στην περίπτωση των γεωμετρικών προτάσεων που αποδίδονται στον πρώτο φιλόσοφο και επιστήμονα, το Θαλή, αυτές είναι θεωρήματα, ενώ οι βαβυλώνιες μαθηματικές προτάσεις σχετίζονται με πρακτικά προβλήματα που άπτονται συγκεκριμένων περιπτώσεων και λύνονται με συγκεκριμένες αριθμητικές πράξεις. Όλα τα προελληνικά μαθηματικά εξαντλούνται σε προβλήματα πρακτικής αριθμητικής. Αυτό σημαίνει ότι όταν καλούμαστε να λύσουμε ένα πρακτικό πρόβλημα βαβυλωνιακού τύπου, μπορούμε να το λύσουμε με μετρήσεις και υπολογισμούς και αυτή η λύση έχει ισχύ μόνο γι’ αυτή τη συγκεκριμένη περίπτωση (δηλαδή για τη συγκεκριμένη πυραμίδα ή για το ορθογώνιο του οποίου οι πλευρές έχουν συγκεκριμένο μήκος). Από την άλλη πλευρά, το θεώρημα του Θαλή[3] ότι «η διάμετρος διαιρεί τον κύκλο σε δύο ίσα μέρη» είναι μία γενική ή καθολική πρόταση που αναφέρεται σε κάθε κύκλο. Τώρα, ‘διάμετρος’ και ‘κύκλος’ είναι καθολικές έννοιες και όχι καθ’ έκαστα. Τις καθολικές έννοιες δεν μπορούμε να τις δούμε, τις συλλαμβάνουμε μόνο με τον νου μας. Επομένως, σε γενικές προτάσεις που περιέχουν καθολικές έννοιες δεν μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε την εποπτική εμπειρία μας ούτε να προβούμε σε μετρήσεις ή υπολογισμούς και συνεπώς χρειαζόμαστε άλλες μεθόδους. Αυτές είναι λογικές, δηλαδή, συλλογισμοί και επιχειρήματα, μέσω των οποίων οδηγούμαστε στην θεωρητική απόδειξη. Δεν έχει βρεθεί μαθηματικό κείμενο προελληνικού πολιτισμού (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των Κινέζων και των Ινδών) όπου να υπάρχει γενική θεωρητική απόδειξη, ή να εμφανίζονται καθολικές έννοιες. Επιπλέον, έχω την πεποίθηση ότι σε κανένα προελληνικό κείμενο (όχι μόνο στα μαθηματικά) δεν εμφανίζονται καθολικές έννοιες, συλλογισμοί ή επιχειρήματα. Πιστεύω ότι μια συστηματική έρευνα σε όλα τα προελληνικά κείμενα που έχουν διασωθεί θα επιβεβαιώσει τον ισχυρισμό μου. Αυτό θα είναι και ένα από τα βασικά σημεία στα οποία θα επικεντρωθεί το προαναφερθέν ερευνητικό πρόγραμμα.

Φαίνεται λοιπόν ότι οι Έλληνες ανακάλυψαν έναν δεύτερο κόσμο. Έναν κόσμο καθαρά πνευματικό. Τον κόσμο των καθολικών εννοιών ή των ‘καθόλου’, όπως τα αποκαλεί ο Αριστοτέλης. Το πρόβλημα αυτό είναι κεντρικό σε όλη την αρχαία φιλοσοφία. Πρώτος ο Παρμενίδης κάνει διάκριση ανάμεσα σε δύο κόσμους. Τον κόσμο της ‘αλήθειας’, που είναι ο κόσμος του καθαρού πνεύματος, και τον κόσμο της ‘δοξασίας’ που είναι ο γνωστός κόσμος των αισθήσεων. Ο Πλάτων μιλά για τη διαφορά ανάμεσα στα πολλά και το ένα. Το ένα είναι η ιδέα, όπως την ονομάζει. Υπάρχουν πολλές δίκαιες πράξεις αλλά μόνο μία ιδέα της δικαιοσύνης. Κάτι είναι ωραίο γιατί «μετέχει» της ιδέας του ωραίου. Η ιδέα έχει λοιπόν καθολικότητα γιατί αντανακλάται σε όλα τα ωραία πράγματα. Πραγματική γνώση έχουμε μόνο για τις ιδέες και όχι για τα ‘πολλά’. Ο Αριστοτέλης ονομάζει ‘καθόλου’ αυτό που από τη φύση του κατηγορείται σε πολλά πράγματα, ενώ το ‘καθ’ έκαστον’ (δηλ. το επί μέρους) όχι. Ο άνθρωπος, για παράδειγμα, είναι καθόλου, ενώ ο Σωκράτης καθ’ έκαστον. Δηλαδή, τα καθ’ έκαστον είναι συγκεκριμένα ατομικά πράγματα που δεν μπορούν να παίξουν το ρόλο του κατηγορουμένου σε μια πρόταση. Ενώ καθόλου είναι όσα μπορούν να είναι κατηγορήματα σε πολλά υποκείμενα.[4]

Η ανακάλυψη του κόσμου των καθολικών εννοιών από τους Έλληνες εξηγεί τη συνεισφορά τους στην διαμόρφωση για πρώτη φορά επιχειρημάτων, αλλά και στην ανάπτυξη της λογικής, της θεωρητικής επιστήμης, των θεωρητικών μαθηματικών και της φιλοσοφίας. Όλα αυτά είναι αδύνατον να υπάρξουν χωρίς καθολικές έννοιες. Το ίδιο ισχύει και για την ηθική και πολιτική φιλοσοφία, την αντίληψη του αισθητικά ‘ωραίου’ και πολλά άλλα. Από τη στιγμή που οι Έλληνες ανακαλύπτουν αυτόν τον δεύτερο κόσμο των  καθολικών εννοιών και ακόμα τρόπους χειρισμού τους και τρόπους επικοινωνίας μεταξύ των δύο κόσμων (διάφορα είδη επιχειρημάτων ή συλλογιστικών τρόπων), αλλάζει η εικόνα τους για τον κόσμο και για τον εαυτό τους. Τα πάντα μπορούν να ιδωθούν με άλλο τρόπο – θεωρητικό – και να υποστηριχθούν με επιχειρήματα. Επιπλέον, αυτός ο κόσμος των καθόλου, εμφανίζεται ως ένας κόσμος απόλυτης ακρίβειας, καθαρότητας και αιωνιότητας. Αυτός είναι ο κόσμος της θεωρητικής επιστήμης και της ακριβούς γνώσης.[5] Από τον Πυθαγόρα και μετά όλη σχεδόν η αρχαία φιλοσοφία και ειδικότερα η μελέτη του όντος, δεν είναι τίποτε άλλο παρά προβληματισμός γύρω από τα καθόλου, τα καθέκαστα και τις αρχές τους.


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Πως όμως οι Έλληνες έφθασαν στην ανακάλυψη των καθολικών εννοιών; Το ερώτημα είναι αδύνατο να απαντηθεί μόνο με ιστορικά δεδομένα. Θεωρώ όμως ότι αυτό έγινε μέσω του δημοκρατικού διαλόγου.  Κατά τα τέλη του 9ου αιώνα π.Χ., και μετά από τους τρεις τουλάχιστον αιώνες του «Ελληνικού Μεσαίωνα» εμφανίζονται οι πόλεις-κράτη και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους είναι αρκετά διαφορετικά από τα παλαιά Μυκηναϊκά βασίλεια. Το πολίτευμά τους είναι αριστοκρατικό. Ακόμα και όταν έχουμε βασιλεία, αυτή ελέγχεται από ένα αριστοκρατικό συμβούλιο. [6] Έτσι η διοίκηση του κράτους είναι συλλογική υπόθεση μιας ομάδας πολιτών με αντικρουόμενα πολλές φορές συμφέροντα και οι αποφάσεις αρχίζουν να παίρνονται κατόπιν διαλόγου.[7] Το πιο σημαντικό όμως είναι ότι αυτά τα αριστοκρατικά πολιτεύματα δεν θα εξελιχθούν σε βασίλεια (που είναι το πιο συνηθισμένο) αλλά σε περισσότερο δημοκρατικές κατευθύνσεις. Αυτό οφείλεται κυρίως σε μια μεγάλη αλλαγή που συντελείται στην τεχνική του πολέμου στα τέλη του όγδοου αιώνα π.Χ. Οι Έλληνες ανακαλύπτουν την τεχνική του πολέμου σε φάλαγγα.[8] Η φάλαγγα, που στελεχώνεται από τη μεσαία τάξη, εξελίσσεται στο πιο δυναμικό και αποτελεσματικό σώμα στρατού, σαφώς ανώτερο του ιππικού, που στελεχώνεται από την αριστοκρατία. Έτσι η μεσαία τάξη διεκδικεί σταδιακά δικαιώματα και συμμετοχή στην εξουσία και το πολίτευμα γίνεται περισσότερο συλλογικό.[9] Επιπλέον, ο πόλεμος σε φάλαγγα αλλάζει την αντίληψη για την ανδρεία και κάνει δυνατή την καθιέρωση της αξίας της ‘ισότητας’ η οποία γίνεται κεντρικό στοιχείο της πολιτικής ιδεολογίας των νέων πόλεων. Έτσι η ανδρεία η οποία ήταν η ατομική δύναμη και ικανότητα στη μάχη (όπως π.χ. ο Ηρακλής ή ο Αχιλέας), τώρα αλλάζει νόημα και θεωρείται η ικανότητα να κρατά ο οπλίτης τη γραμμή του και να μην την εγκαταλείπει, συνεργαζόμενος με τον διπλανό του. Αυτή η αντίληψη φαίνεται ήδη στην ποίηση του Τυρταίου (640 – 630 π.Χ.).[10] Η δύναμη της φάλαγγας οφείλεται στη συνοχή της. Λειτουργεί ως μία ενότητα και οι οπλίτες που την απαρτίζουν πρέπει να συμπεριφέρονται ως απόλυτα ίσοι. Η ατομική διαφορά υποτάσσεται στην ενότητα και στο συμπαγές της φάλαγγας. Μέσω της φάλαγγας γίνεται κατανοητό ότι το όλον έχει πολύ μεγαλύτερη αξία και σημασία από τα μέρη. Ένας να διαφέρει, δείχνοντας είτε υπερβολική τόλμη είτε δειλία, η φάλαγγα κινδυνεύει να διασπαστεί. Η απόλυτη αυτή ισότητα των οπλιτών θα έχει αντανάκλαση στην αντίληψη περί ισότητας των πολιτών μέσα στην πόλη και στην αντίληψη ότι το σύνολο – η πόλη – είναι πολύ πιο σημαντική από τους ξεχωριστούς ανθρώπους.[11] Ο σωστός άνθρωπος πρέπει να είναι πολίτης, να ανήκει σε πόλη. Όλες αυτές οι ιδεολογικές εξελίξεις, που είναι ήδη ορατές στον Αναξίμανδρο, διαμορφώνουν το πνευματικό υπόβαθρο για την ανάπτυξη της δημοκρατίας. Φαίνεται λοιπόν ότι δεν είναι τυχαίο ότι η πρώτη εμφάνιση της επιστήμης και της φιλοσοφίας που γίνεται στις Ιωνικές πόλεις λαμβάνει χώρα έναν περίπου αιώνα μετά την καθιέρωση της φάλαγγας στην τεχνική του πολέμου. Το ότι η πρώτη εμφάνηση της φιλοσοφίας και επιστήμης γίνεται στις Ιωνικές πόλεις και μάλιστα στην Μίλητο[12] εξηγείται εύκολα γιατί αυτές οι πόλεις, πέρα από τις εξελίξεις που είδαμε σε όλο τον ελλαδικό χώρο, είναι οι πρώτες που ήλθαν σε επαφή με άλλους λαούς και ανέπτυξαν αξιόλογο εμπόριο. Η κριτική αντιμετώπιση των διάφορων ηθών, νομοθεσιών, πολιτικών σχηματισμών κτλ. εύκολα θα μπορούσε να οδηγήσει σε έναν γενκότερο προβληματισμό γύρω από τον κόσμο και τον άνθρωπο.

Ένα άλλο σημαντικό χαρακτηριστικό των πρωτοεμφανιζόμενων πόλεων είναι ότι δεν έχουν μιαν ξεχωριστή τάξη ιερέων η οποία θα μονοπωλούσε τη γνώση και θα την περιόριζε μέσα μόνο σε μια κάστα. Χρέη ιερέα στις ελληνικές πόλεις εκτελεί ο αρχαιότερος μέσα σε κάθε οικογένεια. ‘Ετσι οι ιερείς δεν διακρίνονται από τους άλλους πολίτες. Αυτό θα επιτρέψει ώστε να αναπτυχθεί μια απλή, αλφαβητική γραφή με 24 μόνο γράμματα που ο καθένας μπορεί να τα μάθει. Με άλλα λόγια, μια ‘δημοκρατική’ γραφή για όλο τον λαό.

Σ’ αυτές λοιπόν τις πόλεις-κράτη δεν υπάρχει μια τάξη που να κατέχει τη γνώση (ανθρώπινη ή θεϊκή) και κυβερνώνται από μια συλλογική ηγεσία που σταδιακά διευρύνεται. Σε μια τέτοια πόλη, τα κοινά προβλήματα μπορούν να λυθούν με δύο τρόπους: είτε με τη βία, είτε με το διάλογο. Οι Έλληνες σύντομα κατανόησαν την αξία του διαλόγου στη λύση των πολιτικών προβλημάτων τους. Τώρα ο αγώνας για να επικρατήσει το συμφέρον του καθενός δε γίνεται με τα όπλα αλλά με τον λόγο.[13] Όταν αντιτιθέμενα συμφέροντα συγκρούονται και προσπαθούμε να τα συμβιβάσουμε με το διάλογο, τότε ξεπερνάμε τα ατομικά συμφέροντα και μιλάμε για το γενικό συμφέρον της πόλης. Αυτό δεν είναι το ατομικό συμφέρον και δίκαιο αλλά το γενικό, η δικαιοσύνη. Μέσω του διαλόγου ξεπερνάμε τα ατομικά συμφέροντα και πεποιθήσεις (καθ’ έκαστα) και περνάμε σε συλλογικές αξίες κοινές για όλους. Έτσι ο διάλογος και η αναζήτηση  του κοινού δικαίου οδηγεί στο πέρασμα από τα καθέκαστα στα καθόλου – στις καθολικές έννοιες.

Αναγκαία όμως συνθήκη για την ύπαρξη διαλόγου είναι η ισότητα. Διάλογος υπάρχει μόνο όταν βλέπουμε τον άλλον τον αντίπαλό μας στην πολιτική ως ίσο με εμάς. Χωρίς την αντίληψη της πολιτικής ισότητας έχουμε μόνο υποταγή στον ισχυρότερο. Έτσι, τα πολιτεύματα των Ελλήνων στηρίζονται στην αντίληψη της ισότητας των πολιτών. Οι έννοιες ‘ισότης’, ‘ισονομία’, ‘ισηγορία’, ‘ισοκρατία’ έχουν κεντρικό ρόλο στο πολιτικό λεξιλόγιο των αρχαίων Ελλήνων. Όταν όμως σε μια πόλη έχουμε μιαν ομάδα ‘ίσων’ πολιτών, αυτοί δεν υπακούουν σε κάποιον άλλο άνθρωπο ή πολίτη, αλλά μόνο στους ‘κοινούς’ νόμους της πόλης που αποφασίζονται από αυτούς και αντανακλούν το δίκαιο στην πόλη. Η υπακοή στους κοινούς νόμους και όχι σε κάποιον άνθρωπο είναι ακρογωνιαίος λίθος της πολιτικής ζωής των Ελλήνων. Όταν όμως κάποιος δεν υπακούει σε κανέναν άλλον, δεν έχει κανέναν ‘κύριο’ ή ‘αφέντη’ από πάνω του, τότε είναι ελεύθερος. Οι πόλεις-κράτη των Ελλήνων είναι πόλεις ελεύθερων ανθρώπων. Εδώ εδράζεται κατά τον Ηρόδοτο (Ζ, 103-4, 135, πρβλ. Πλούταρχος, Θεμιστοκλής 27) και η διαφορά ανάμεσα στους Έλληνες και τους Βάρβαρους.


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Οι πόλεις της ισότητας και ελευθερίας γεννούν την πολιτική και τον πολιτισμό. Οι αξίες αυτές ενισχύονται σταδιακά από μιαν καθολική και ελεύθερη παιδεία για όλους τους νέους. Έτσι οι Έλληνες πρότειναν μια σειρά από αξίες που αποτέλεσαν τη βάση για τις δυτικές σύγχρονες ‘ανοικτές κοινωνίες’. Όταν βλέπουμε τους άλλους ως ίσους με εμάς και ελεύθερους, μόνο τότε μπορούμε να έχουμε έναν πραγματικό διάλογο μαζί τους. Γιατί στους άνισους υπάρχει μόνο το ‘άρχειν’ και το ‘άρχεσθαι’. Αναγνώριση της ισότητας και της ελευθερίας του άλλου μας κάνει επίσης ανεκτικούς απέναντί του και έτοιμους, μέσω του διαλόγου, να κατανοήσουμε τις απόψεις και τις ιδιαιτερότητές του. Επιπλέον ο κοινός διάλογος για την εύρεση του κοινού συμφέροντος και δικαίου οδηγεί στην ανακάλυψη του κόσμου των καθολικών εννοιών και κάνει δυνατή την ανάπτυξη της λογικής, της φιλοσοφίας και της επιστήμης.

Τώρα μπορούμε να απαντήσουμε εύλογα και στο ερώτημα του τι οφείλουμε στους Έλληνες και τι οφείλουν οι Έλληνες στους προελληνικούς λαούς. Πράγματι οι Έλληνες πήραν από άλλους λαούς πολλά πράγματα: μαθηματικά, αστρονομία, μουσική, ιατρική, φυσική, ζωγραφική, γλυπτική, θρησκευτικές πεποιθήσεις, νόμους, γνώσεις για κατασκευές, επεξεργασία υλικών, ναυτιλία. Ότι όμως πήραν ήταν εμπειρικές γνώσεις και τεχνικές οδηγίες. Οι Έλληνες τα μεταμόρφωσαν σε θεωρία, σε σύστημα, σε επιστήμη. Τα ολοκλήρωσαν και τα τελειοπόιησαν. Έχει δίκιο λοιπόν ο πλατωνικός συγγραφέας της Επινομίδος[14] (987d9-e1) που λέει «ας λάβουμε υπ’ όψιν πως ό,τι λαμβάνουν οι Έλληνες από τους βάρβαρους, το ολοκληρώνουν και το τελειοποιούν».



Vassilis Karasmanis

ON THE BIRTH OF THE ANCIENT GREEK CIVILIZATION: AN INTERPRETATION

Abstract


The problem of the birth of Greek civilization still remains as one of the most difficult historical and theoretical problems. It is commonplace to say that modern Western civilization was based on the ancient Greek civilization. We believe that in a short period, in a small part of the Mediterranean, the small Greek people has produced achievements that have marked all the later world culture, such as philosophy, science, mathematics, the alphabet, art, theater, literature, politics, history, sports etct,. However, there are scholars who believe that we can find almost all of the above things (with the possible exception of the theater) – perhaps in early form – in the pre-Hellenic civilizations. Finally, do we really owe to Greeks all the above? What did the the Greeks have taken from earlier cultures and what is their own originality? Is there something, some factor, the occurrence of which in Greek society have caused the boom in all these areas? The answer I propose is that the Greeks, for the first time in history, have discovered the world of universal notions and this has given rise to logic, philosophy, science ect. This discovery is connected with the political characteristics of the new city-states, the new technique of war in phalanx, and the introduction of the political dialogue. These thoughts, if proved fruitful, will evolve into a broader research project that will contribute significantly to the interpretation of the phenomenon of Greek civilization.



[1] The Greeks, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1951.

[2] Δεν θα κάνω εδώ διάκριση μεταξύ ‘γενικότητας’ και ‘καθολικότητας’ γιατί δεν παίζει ρόλο στο θέμα μου.

[3] Συνολικά, τέσσερα θεωρήματα – καθώς και ένα πέμπτο για το οποίο όμως υπάρχει αμφισβήτηση – αποδίδονται στο Θαλή. Για τα θεωρήματα αυτά καθώς και για τον πιθανό τρόπο απόδειξής τους, βλ. Vassilis Karasmanis, “On the first Greek mathematical proof”, Hermathena, No 169 (2000), 7-21.

[4] Τόσο στα Μεταφυσικά (π.χ. 982α20-30, 1059b27, 1086b4-7, 1086b33-37), όσο και στα Αναλυτικά Ύστερα (π.χ. 75b23-28, 77a5-10, 81b1), ο Αριστοτέλης επιμένει ότι η γνώση και η επιστήμη αφορούν τα καθόλου, τις καθολικές έννοιες. Η επιστήμη είναι αποδεικτική. Δεν μπορούμε να έχουμε επιστήμη που να μην είναι αποδεικτική. Και ότι κάθε απόδειξη και κάθε συλλογισμός αναγκαστικά χρησιμοποιεί καθολικές έννοιες. Σε ένα άλλο χωρίο στα Μεταφυσικά (1086b2-5) ο Αριστοτέλης μας λέει ότι ο πρώτος που ασχολήθηκε συστηματικά με τους ορισμούς των καθολικών εννοιών ήταν ο Σωκράτης. Για την εποχή πριν το Σωκράτη, ο Αριστοτέλης (Μεταφυσικά 1078b13-30) αναγνωρίζει τρεις μόνο περιπτώσεις φιλοσόφων που είχαν συνεισφορά στη διαμόρφωση της έννοιας του καθόλου. Αυτές οι τρεις περιπτώσεις είναι: Πρώτον, οι Πυθαγόρειοι με την εργασία τους πάνω στους αριθμούς και στις αριθμητικές αναλογίες. Δεύτερον, ο Εμπεδοκλής με τις αριθμητικές αναλογίες του στη φυσική θεωρία του για τη σύνθεση της ύλης για να εξηγήσει τη σύσταση των διαφόρων υλικών. Τρίτον, ο Δημόκριτος για το προβληματισμό του πάνω στους ορισμούς αλλά και γιατί ήταν ο πρώτος που ασχολήθηκε με την έννοια της ουσίας στην οποία ο Αριστοτέλη δίνει ιδιαίτερη βαρύτητα.

[5] Ο Πλάτων στην Πολιτεία του (511b-c) μας λέει ότι η διαλεκτική, που είναι η ανώτατη γνωστική βαθμίδα, πορεύεται χωρίς να χρησιμοποιεί τίποτε το αισθητό αλλά μόνο ιδέες. Ο Αριστοτέλης (Μεταφυσικά 981a1-20) λέει οτι η επιστήμη και η τέχνη προκύπτουν από την εμπειρία. Η εμπειρία είναι η γνώση των επί μέρους ενώ η τέχνη η γνώση των καθόλου. Στην πράξη όμως φαίνεται ότι η εμπειρία δεν διαφέρει από την τέχνη. Συχνά μάλιστα άνθρωποι της εμπειρίας πετυχαίνουν καλλίτερα από ανθρώπους της τέχνης γιατί η πράξη και η δημιουργία σχετίζεται με τα επί μέρους. Οι άνθρωποι της τέχνης γνωρίζουν την αιτία των πραγμάτων, το ‘διότι’, ενώ οι εμπειρικοί μόνο το ‘ότι’ (28-9). Έτσι ο τεχνίτης είναι σοφότερος από τον εμπειρικό, η δέ σοφία είναι η επιστήμη των αρχών και των αιτιών. Η δέ επιστήμη είναι «έξις αποδεικτική» (Ηθικά Νικομάχεια, 1139b31-2). Με βάση αυτές τις διακρίσεις και παρατηρήσεις του Αριστοτέλη θα μπορούσαμε ίσως να πούμε ότι οι προελληνικοί πολιτισμοί ευρίσκονταν στο επίπεδο της εμπειρίας – ή έστω μιας κατώτερης μορφής τέχνης – ενώ οι Έλληνες προχώρησαν στο επίπεδο της επιστήμης και της σοφίας.

[6] Με την κατάρρευση του Μυκηναϊκού πολιτισμού καταστρέφονται οι μεγάλες πόλεις και οι παλιές πολιτικές δομές. Φαίνεται ότι το εμπόριο και οι επικοινωνίες περιορίζονται δραστικά. Ο κόσμος ζει σε μικρά χωριά επιστρέφοντας σε μιαν απλή περιορισμένη αγροτική ζωή ικανή μόνο για την καθημερινή επιβίωση. Αν παρατηρήσουμε τη γεωγραφική μορφολογία του ελληνικού χώρου θα δούμε ότι αποτελείται από κατά βάση από μικρές πεδιάδες αποκλεισμένες από βουνά και θάλασσα. Από αυτές τις μικρές γεωγραφικές και οικονομικές ενότητες θα αναδυθούν οι πόλεις – κράτη. Κάθε τέτοια πόλη αποτελείται από την κεντρική πεδιάδα, τα βουνά που την περιβάλλουν, κάποια μικρά ποτάμια που ρέουν από τα βουνά, και αρκετά συχνά κάποια διέξοδος στη θάλασσα. Μια τέτοια γεωγραφική ενότητα χαρακτηρίζεται από μια μεγάλη βιοποικιλία που κάνει ικανή την πόλη να έχει μια οικονομική αυτονομία. Οικιστικά τώρα, η πόλη αποτελείται από πολλά μικρά χωρία με τους τοπικούς τους άρχοντες. Σταδιακά, ένα από αυτά θα γίνει η κεντρική αγορά, θα μεγαλώσει και θα αποτελέσει το κέντρο της οικονομικής και πολιτικής ζωής της πόλης (βλ. ο συνοικισμός του Θησέα στην Αθήνα). Στο πολιτικό τώρα επίπεδο, αυτή η γεωγραφική και οικονομική ενότητα διοικείται από τους τοπικούς άρχοντες και τις οικογένειές τους. Το πολίτευμά της είναι λοιπόν είτε αριστοκρατικό είτε μια χαλαρή βασιλεία με μεγάλη αυτονομία των τοπικών αρχόντων.

[7] Βλ. τη συνέλευση των αρχηγών στην Ιλιάδα (ραψωδία Α).

[8] Θεωρώ πολύ πιθανό ότι η φάλαγγα χρησιμοποιήθηκε για πρώτη φορά στους πολέμους ανάμεσα στην Χαλκίδα και την Ερέτρια  για το Λιλάντιο πεδίο.

[9] Μια δεύτερη σημαντική διεύρυνση της δημοκρατίας παρατηρούμε στην Αθήνα (και σε άλλες ναυτικές κυρίως πόλεις) μετά τους περσικούς πολέμους. Τώρα η πολεμική δύναμη της Αθήνας στηρίζεται στο ναυτικό της. Αλλά οι ναύτες είναι οι φτωχοί γιατί ο οπλισμός τους είναι ελαφρύς. Έτσι οι φτωχές τάξεις διεκδικούν και αποκτούν πλήρη δικαιώματα.

[10] Βλ. Τυρταίος, απόσπασμα 11 W, Στοβαίος, 4. 9. 16. Στα αποσπάματα του Τυρταίου έχουμε πολλές αναφορές στον πόλεμο με φάλαγγα.

[11] Στην Σπάρτη του τέλους του 7ου αιώνα π.Χ. το ιππικό παίζει ελάχιστο ρόλο στον πόλεμο, οι δε οπλίτες αποκαλούνται και «όμοιοι».

[12] Η γέννηση του Θαλή υπολογίζεται κάπου μεταξύ του 640 και του 620 π.Χ.

[13] Ήδη από την πρώιμη αρχαϊκή εποχή οι Έλληνες είχαν αναπτύξει ένα ‘αγωνιστικό’ πνεύμα. Αυτό δεν εμφανίζεται μόνο στους περίφημους αθλητικούς αγώνες αλλά και σε αγώνες ποίησης και μουσικής. Η αντίληψη είναι να βρεθούν οι πραγματικά καλύτεροι και πιο άξιοι  μέσω ενός ισότιμου ανταγωνισμού με σαφείς κανόνες. Η καταγωγή και η εξουσία αρχίζουν να υποχωρούν μπροστά στην ικανότητα και την αξία. Σύμφωνα με κάποιους ιστορικούς και αρχαιολόγους, οι μουσικοί αγώνες των Δελφών προηγούνται των Ολυμπιακών αγώνων. Αργότερα, στην κλασική εποχή θα εμφανιστούν και άλλα είδη αγώνων, όπως ρητορικοί και διαλεκτικοί.

[14] Σύμφωνα με μία παράδοση (βλ. Διογένης Λαέρτιος, ΙΙΙ, 37), η Επινομίς δεν έχει γραφεί από τον Πλάτωνα αλλά από τονμαθητή του τον Φίλιππο τον Οπούντιο.

Στα Όρια της Επιστήμης

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

Ομιλία στο 10ο ΕλλαδοΚυπριακό Χειρουργικό Συνέδριο, Λευκωσία, 18 Νοεμβρίου 2011, και στην εκδήλωση προς τιμή του καθηγητή Παναγιώτη Καραγιαννάκου, Ίδρυμα Ιατροβιολογικών Ερευνών της Ακαδημίας Αθηνών, 12 Δεκεμβρίου 2011.

Στα όρια της επιστήμης: Επιστημονικά ερωτήματα χωρίς επιστημονικές απαντήσεις

Λουκάς Γ. Χριστοφόρου

της Ακαδημίας Αθηνών


1. Εισαγωγή



Η ικανότητα της σύγχρονης επιστήμης να απαντά σε ερωτήματα τα οποία μπορούν να ορισθούν επιστημονικά είναι σχεδόν χωρίς όρια.


Το φάσμα των επιστημονικών ερωτημάτων στα οποία επιδιώκονται επιστημονικές απαντήσεις είναι επίσης απέραντο. Εκτείνεται από τα απλά ερωτήματα που αποσκοπούν στην επικύρωση και τη συστηματοποίηση της επιστημονικής γνώσης ως τα ερωτήματα των πρωτοποριακών πεδίων αιχμής όπου οι απαντήσεις είναι δύσκολες και η επιστημονική μέθοδος βρίσκεται πολλές φορές στα όρια των δυνατοτήτων της. Αναζητούνται, ακόμη, απαντήσεις σε θεμελιακά ερωτήματα που θεωρούνται ότι έχουν απαντηθεί, όπως, για παράδειγμα, «είναι η ταχύτητα του φωτός στο κενό η μέγιστη δυνατή ταχύτητα, η απροσπέλαστη σταθερά της φύσης;» Ερωτήματα και αναζητήσεις απαντήσεων, που εν πολλοίς καταδεικνύουν τον τρόπο με τον οποίο η επιστήμη εξελίσσεται και η επιστημονική γνώση θεμελιώνεται.

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Στην αποψινή μου ομιλία θα αναφερθώ σε δύο κατηγορίες επιστημονικών ερωτημάτων που βρίσκονται στα όρια της επιστήμης. Ερωτήματα τα οποία ενώ μπορούν να διατυπωθούν επιστημονικά, δεν επιδέχονται επιστημονική διευθέτηση, δεν μπορούν να απαντηθούν, τη χρονική στιγμή που διατυπώνονται γιατί βρίσκονται τη χρονική εκείνη στιγμή πέραν των δυνατοτήτων της επιστήμης. Ερωτήματα αυτού του είδους ανήκουν στην περιοχή της «τράνς-σάϊενς» (trans-science) – στην περιοχή πέραν της επιστήμης. Απαιτούν ιδιαίτερη προσοχή, κυρίως εκ μέρους του επιστήμονα, ο οποίος καλείται να εκφέρει επιστημονική άποψη χωρίς να έχει επαρκή επιστημονικά δεδομένα. Τα ερωτήματα αυτά εμπίπτουν σε δύο κατηγορίες:


(1) Ερωτήματα που βρίσκονται πέραν των δυνατοτήτων της επιστήμης όταν διατυπώνονται χωρίς όμως να αποκλείεται η επιστημονική λύση τους στο εγγύς μέλλον, και


(2) Ερωτήματα που βρίσκονται πέραν των δυνατοτήτων της επιστήμης όταν διατυπώνονται χωρίς να διαβλέπει κανείς τη δυνατότητα ανεύρεσης λύσης τους στο απώτερο μέλλον.

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2. Παραδείγματα ερωτημάτων που βρίσκονται πέραν των δυνατοτήτων της επιστήμης όταν διατυπώνονται χωρίς όμως να αποκλείεται η επιστημονική λύση τους στο εγγύς μέλλον

1ο Παράδειγμα. Επιστημονική εξακρίβωση των επιπτώσεων στην υγεία μας της επίδρασης πολύ χαμηλής δόσης ιονίζουσας ακτινοβολίας ή ποσότητας ραδιενέργειας ή χημικών ενώσεων. Υφιστάμεθα όλοι την επίδραση χαμηλών ποσοτήτων ακτινοβολίας και χημικών ενώσεων και συνεπώς η επιστημονική διατύπωση του ερωτήματος:  Πόσο χαμηλή είναι η στάθμη της ακτινοβολίας ή της χημικής ένωσης που προκαλεί βλάβη στην υγεία μας; Η επιστημονική απάντηση στο επιστημονικό αυτό ερώτημα τυχόν να μην είναι δυνατή για κάποιο χρονικό διάστημα μετά τη διατύπωση του ερωτήματος λόγω έλλειψης επιστημονικών δεδομένων. Σε χαμηλές ποσότητες, οι επιπτώσεις των αντιδράσεων της ακτινοβολίας ή των χημικών ενώσεων στον οργανισμό, εάν υπάρχουν, είναι πολύ μικρές και η διατύπωση ή μη αδιαμφισβήτητης και ποσοτικής σχέσης μεταξύ αιτίας και αποτελέσματος συχνά απαιτεί μεγάλους αριθμούς μετρήσεων και παρατηρήσεων και μελέτη σε βάθος χρόνου. Η πειραματική ή η θεωρητική διευθέτηση του ερωτήματος συνήθως επιτυγχάνεται στο μέλλον, για παράδειγμα, με τη χρήση νέων πιο ευαίσθητων οργάνων μέτρησης ή με θεωρητικά μοντέλα μοριακών μηχανισμών βλάβης.

2ο Παράδειγμα. Η πιθανή επίδραση στην υγεία μας χαμηλής έντασης και συχνότητας μαγνητικών πεδίων από τις ηλεκτρικές γραμμές μεταφοράς και διανομής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Το θέμα ορίζεται επιστημονικά: Ηλεκτρικές γραμμές μεταφοράς ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας διασχίζουν το χώρο γύρω μας και είμαστε όλοι χρονικά εκτεθειμένοι στα χαμηλής συχνότητας και έντασης μαγνητικά πεδία που παράγουν. Επομένως το επιστημονικό ερώτημα: Τι επιπτώσεις έχουν στην υγεία μας; Επί του παρόντος δεν μπορεί να δοθεί οριστική επιστημονική απάντηση στο ερώτημα αυτό, αν και υπάρχουν σοβαρές μελέτες που μάλλον υποδεικνύουν ότι δεν υπάρχουν επιπτώσεις στην υγεία, υπό τις υφιστάμενες προδιαγραφές και νομοθεσίες.


3ο Παράδειγμα. Ποία είναι η πιθανή επίδραση στην υγεία μας μικροκυμάτων από διάφορες πηγές και συσκευές που καθημερινά χρησιμοποιούμε, π.χ. από τα κινητά τηλέφωνα; Και γι’ αυτό το επιστημονικό ερώτημα δεν υπάρχουν προς το παρόν επαρκή επιστημονικά δεδομένα και κατάλληλη επιστημονική γνώση για ακριβή επιστημονική απάντηση. Βρίσκεται και αυτό το ερώτημα, προς το παρόν, στην περιοχή της trans-science.


4ο Παράδειγμα: Γενετικά μεταλλαγμένα τρόφιμα (Genetically Modified Foods). Υπάρχει σήμερα η δυνατότητα παραγωγής γενετικά μεταλλαγμένων τροφίμων. Υπάρχει μάλιστα μία τεράστια και συνεχώς επεκτεινόμενη βιομηχανία μεταλλαγμένων τροφίμων η ποσότητα και η ποικιλία των οποίων αυξάνεται καθημερινά στην αγορά, κυρίως σε μερικές χώρες όπως λ.χ. οι ΗΠΑ. Συνεπώς, το επιστημονικό ερώτημα. Συνιστούν τα γενετικά μεταλλαγμένα τρόφιμα κίνδυνο στην υγεία της ανθρωπότητας και στη βιοποικιλότητα (biodiversity) και είναι ο όποιος τυχόν κίνδυνος επαρκής να αποκλείσει τη χρήση τους, όταν αυτή προσφέρει τη δυνατότητα ελευθερίας από την πείνα για εκατομμύρια ανθρώπους;


Στη νέα αυτή επιστημονική τεχνολογία, με μεθόδους της σύγχρονης γενετικής μηχανικής, το γενετικό υλικό, τα γονίδια (τα genes) φυτικών οργανισμών μεταλλάσσονται δημιουργώντας νέους οργανισμούς. Οι νέοι διαγονιδιακοί (transgenic) οργανισμοί, τα νέα φυτά που έχουν παραχθεί από την εισαγωγή στο γονιδίωμά τους μεταλλαγμένου γενετικού υλικού, μπορεί να έχουν καλύτερα χαρακτηριστικά: καλύτερη ποιότητα και ποσότητα καρπών, μεγαλύτερη ανθεκτικότητα σε περιβαλλοντικές συνθήκες ή σε βλαβερά έντομα ή σε παρασιτοκτόνα (herbicides), κλπ.


Η τεράστια βιομηχανία γενετικά μεταλλαγμένων τροφίμων ισχυρίζεται ότι τα μεταλλαγμένα τρόφιμα είναι ασφαλή. Άλλοι όμως διαφωνούν και τονίζουν ότι δεν έχουν γίνει οι αναγκαίες πειραματικές μελέτες για τις τυχόν μακροχρόνιες επιδράσεις τους στη υγεία. Ούτε, λέγουν, έχουν γίνει επαρκείς μελέτες ικανές να καθησυχάσουν τους φόβους για τυχόν περιβαλλοντικούς κινδύνους από τους γενετικά μεταλλαγμένους οργανισμούς, ιδιαίτερα στην τυχόν αρνητική επίδρασή τους στη βιοποικιλότητα της περιοχής όπου καλλιεργούνται.


Τα γενετικά μεταλλαγμένα τρόφιμα είναι μία περιοχή της επιστήμης και της τεχνολογίας με σημαντικότατες κοινωνικές επιπτώσεις (θετικές και τυχόν αρνητικές) και με ουσιώδη αναπάντητα επιστημονικά ερωτήματα που, τουλάχιστον μέρος τους, βρίσκεται ακόμη στο χώρο της trans-science. Οριστικές επιστημονικές απαντήσεις μετατίθενται στο μέλλον.

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Προφανώς υπάρχουν και άλλα παρόμοια ερωτήματα.


Θα μπορούσα ωστόσο να αναφέρω ένα ακόμη παράδειγμα, αντιπροσωπευτικό των ερωτημάτων που βρίσκονται στη μεθόριο της επιστήμης και της τεχνολογίας αφενός, και των ηθικών αξιών της κοινωνίας αφετέρου, και που έχουν χρονική αλλά και τοπική διάσταση (εξαρτώνται από τα ηθικά και τα αξιοκρατικά συστήματα των τοπικών κοινωνιών). Πότε αρχίζει η ανθρώπινη ζωή; Σε ποια φάση της ανάπτυξής του το ανθρώπινο έμβρυο γίνεται πρόσωπο με ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα και άρα με νομικές υποχρεώσεις απέναντι του; Αναζητώντας επιστημονική απάντηση στα ερωτήματα αυτά βρισκόμαστε αντιμέτωποι με το ρόλο της επιστημονικής γνώσης στην ηθική και τις αξίες της κοινωνίας και στην επίδραση των τελευταίων στην εκτέλεση της επιστημονικής έρευνας (λ.χ., τη χρήση βλαστοκυττάρων για ερευνητικούς και ιατρικούς σκοπούς). Διαφαίνεται και εδώ πάλι, η ανάγκη ενός σοβαρού και συνεχούς διαλόγου ανάμεσα στην επιστήμη και την κοινωνία για την ανεύρεση απαντήσεων σύμφωνων με τα επιστημονικά δεδομένα και τις επιστημονικές ανάγκες αφενός, και σύμφωνων με τις ανθρώπινες αξίες και ηθική αφετέρου. Στην αντιμετώπιση αυτού του είδους ερωτημάτων η επιστήμη πρέπει μάλλον να αναζητήσει εναλλακτικές λύσεις, περισσότερο αποδεκτές από την κοινωνία, και η κοινωνία απ’ την πλευρά της να αναζητήσει τρόπους συμβιβασμού της νέας επιστημονικής γνώσης με τα αξιοκρατικά και ηθικά της συστήματα, ώστε να επωφεληθεί και η επιστήμη και η κοινωνία από τη νέα γνώση.

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Τα παραδείγματα επιστημονικών ερωτημάτων που ανάφερα ως τώρα, βρίσκονται στη μεθόριο της επιστήμης και της τεχνολογίας αφενός, και των πολιτικών αποφάσεων και κοινωνικών συμφερόντων και αξιών αφετέρου. Στην επιστημονική και κοινωνική τους διευθέτηση, υπεισέρχονται πολλές φορές η εκτίμηση του κινδύνου και του οφέλους της επιστημονικής τεχνολογίας με βάση τα όποια επιστημονικά δεδομένα υπάρχουν, και η κοινωνική ανάγκη λήψης αποφάσεων όπως, λ.χ., νέας νομοθεσίας και κανονισμών. Αναπόφευκτα, τέτοια ερωτήματα πάντοτε θα υπάρχουν. Ορίζονται επιστημονικά, δεν μπορούν όμως να απαντηθούν πλήρως από την επιστήμη τη χρονική στιγμή που τίθενται. Ο επιστήμονας, εν τούτοις, πολλές φορές καλείται να εκφέρει την επιστημονική του άποψη πριν την τελική επιστημονική διευθέτηση του ερωτήματος. Οφείλει, λοιπόν, ο επιστήμονας να εκθέσει την όποια επιστημονική γνώση κατέχει επί του θέματος και να αποφύγει την εξαγωγή συμπερασμάτων πέραν των όσων επιτρέπουν τα επιστημονικά δεδομένα. Δυστυχώς υπήρξαν περιπτώσεις στο παρελθόν που αυτό δεν έγινε, όπως λ.χ. στην καπνοβιομηχανία σχετικά με τις επιπτώσεις του καπνίσματος στην υγεία. Έχει καθήκον ο επιστήμονας να διασαφηνίσει τη μεθόριο στην οποία η επιστήμη σταματά και η trans-science αρχίζει.

 

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3. Παραδείγματα ερωτημάτων που βρίσκονται πέραν των δυνατοτήτων της επιστήμης όταν διατυπώνονται χωρίς να διαβλέπει κανείς τη δυνατότητα ανεύρεσης λύσης τους στο απώτερο μέλλον, ίσως για πάντα

Ας προχωρήσουμε όμως και στα ερωτήματα της δεύτερης κατηγορίας της trans-science, στα ερωτήματα που αν και μπορούν να διατυπωθούν επιστημονικά δεν επιδέχονται επιστημονική διευθέτηση όταν τίθενται, ίσως γιατί βρίσκονται για πάντα πέραν της δικαιοδοσίας της επιστήμης, στη μεθόριο μεταξύ της επιστήμης και της φιλοσοφίας, της επιστήμης και της μεταφυσικής, της επιστήμης και  της θρησκείας.


1ο Παράδειγμα. «Ποια είναι η αρχή της ζωής;» Υπάρχει η ζωή. Είμαστε εδώ,  εσείς και εγώ. Επομένως το επιστημονικό ερώτημα: Πώς αναδύθηκε η ζωή από την ανόργανη ύλη; Από πού προήλθε ο πρώτος ζωντανός οργανισμός; Πώς από τα νεκρά άτομα και μόρια φτάσαμε στην ενσυνείδητη ύπαρξη; Ουσιώδη υπαρξιακά ερωτήματα, δύσκολα, και αναπάντητα. Μέρος της δυσκολίας τους έγκειται στο ότι και ο απλούστερος οργανισμός είναι αφάνταστα πολύπλοκος.


Η αρχή της ζωής παραμένει ένα θεμελιώδες επιστημονικό ερώτημα στο οποίο η επαγωγική μέθοδος της σύγχρονης επιστήμης αδυνατεί να απαντήσει. Δεν γνωρίζουμε  πώς άρχισε η ζωή. Επιστήμονες, από διάφορους κλάδους, εκφράζουν γνώμη σχετικά με την αρχή της ζωής, δεν έχουν όμως επιστημονική απάντηση. Τον περασμένο Σεπτέμβριο, είχα την τιμή να εκπροσωπήσω την Ακαδημία Αθηνών στη Συνέλευση του Παγκόσμιου Συμβουλίου Επιστημών (International Council for Science) στη Ρώμη, όπου παρευρέθησαν εκπρόσωποι από 141 Ακαδημίες επιστημών του κόσμου. Εκεί ο καθηγητής Werner Arber, κάτοχος του βραβείου Νόμπελ στη Physiology or Medicine, έδωσε μία ενδιαφέρουσα διάλεξη με θέμα “Updated scientific knowledge on biological evolution” (τελευταίες εξελίξεις στη βιολογική εξέλιξη) και τόνισε εμφατικά: “I must say right now and clearly that I do not understand the origin of life.” («Πρέπει να τονίσω τώρα και ξεκάθαρα ότι δεν κατανοώ την αρχή της ζωής»). Όπως ακριβώς αποφάνθηκε νωρίτερα και ο Max Perutz, κάτοχος του βραβείου Νόμπελ χημείας 1962, «Η ύπαρξη της ζωής πρέπει να θεωρηθεί ως ένα στοιχειώδες δεδομένο το οποίο δεν μπορεί να απαντηθεί,» είπε.


Υπάρχουν προφανώς επιστήμονες που υποστηρίζουν ότι είναι θέμα χρόνου μέχρις ότου η επιστήμη ανακαλύψει την αλληλουχία των χημικών αντιδράσεων, τα φυσικοχημικά μονοπάτια, που οδήγησαν στη δημιουργία των πρώτων μονοκύτταρων οργανισμών στη Γη. Μάλιστα, η υλιστική άποψη για τη ζωή υποστηρίζει ότι η ζωή έχει αναχθεί στο επίπεδο της φυσικής και της χημείας και ότι όλα, συμπεριλαμβανομένου και του ανθρώπου, μπορούν να αναχθούν στα άτομα και στα μόρια που τα απαρτίζουν. Και αντίστροφα, υποστηρίζει η υλιστική άποψη για τη ζωή, ότι επαγωγικά μπορούμε να οδηγηθούμε από τα μόρια στον άνθρωπο, από κάποιον αρχικό μονοκύτταρο οργανισμό που αναδύθηκε από την ανόργανη ύλη σε μας.


«Πώς όμως αναδύθηκε από την ανόργανη ύλη ο πρώτος αυτό-οργανωνόμενος (selforganizing) και αυτό-αντιγραφόμενος (selfreplicating) οργανισμός που είναι φορέας κωδικοποιημένης πληροφορίας και συνιστά τον εξελικτικό σύνδεσμο μεταξύ της νεκρής ύλης και των ζώντων οργανισμών (μεταξύ των νεκρών ατόμων και μορίων και των ζώντων κυττάρων);» Οι γνωστοί νόμοι της φυσικής και της χημείας, αδυνατούν να απαντήσουν. Αν η ύλη ή η ενέργεια έχει τάσεις για αυτό-οργάνωση, «πώς απέκτησε η ύλη και η ενέργεια αυτές τις ικανότητες και από πού προήλθε η ύλη και η ενέργεια με αυτές τις ιδιότητες;» Και αν ακόμη δεχθούμε την ανάδυση του αρχικού μονοκύτταρου οργανισμού από τα άτομα και τα μόρια της ύλης, το ερώτημα «πως φτάσαμε από τον μονοκύτταρο αυτό οργανισμό στον άνθρωπο;» παραμένει αναπάντητο.


Δεν γνωρίζουμε τι είναι αναγκαίο για να αναδυθεί η ζωή, ούτε και γνωρίζουμε πως φτάσαμε στον άνθρωπο ομολογούν πολλοί επιστήμονες. Η ζωή δεν μπορεί να αναχθεί στις ιδιότητες των μερών από τα οποία απαρτίζεται ένας οργανισμός. Τα ερωτήματα λοιπόν που αφορούν σ’ αυτά τα θέματα βρίσκονται, τουλάχιστον προς το παρόν, στο χώρο της trans-science.


2ο Παράδειγμα. «Πώς άρχισε το σύμπαν;», «Τι προκάλεσε την κοσμική έκρηξη;». Η σημερινή επιστήμη έχει σοβαρές ενδείξεις [όπως η διαστολή του σύμπαντος, η κοσμική ακτινοβολία υποβάθρου (the cosmic background radiation), η σχετική ποσότητα των διάφορων στοιχείων, λ.χ. του  H και του He] ότι το σύμπαν δεν υπήρχε πάντοτε και ότι άρχισε σε κάποια στιγμή. Μάλιστα, η φυσική επιστήμη και η κοσμολογία συμπέραναν ότι το σύμπαν άρχισε πριν από 14 περίπου δισεκατομμύρια χρόνια με μία στιγμιαία έκρηξη, ένα big bang. «Πώς έφτασε η επιστήμη στην αρχή του κόσμου, στο big bang (την κοσμική έκρηξη);»


Η επιστήμη έφθασε εκεί αρχίζοντας από τα σημερινά δεδομένα και τη σημερινή επιστημονική γνώση και με βάση τους φυσικούς νόμους όπως τους γνωρίζουμε σήμερα, έφτασε, προχωρώντας πίσω στο χρόνο, στη στιγμή όπου το σύμπαν ήταν αφάνταστα μικρό (ένα σημείο μηδενικών διαστάσεων), αφάνταστα πυκνό (ολόκληρη η μάζα του σύμπαντος περιεχόταν σ’ αυτό των μηδενικών διαστάσεων σημείο), και αφάνταστα θερμό (σύμφωνα με ορισμένες θεωρίες η θερμοκρασία του σύμπαντος αμέσως μετά την κοσμική έκρηξη ξεπερνούσε τους 1032 Κ βαθμούς, 1 ακολουθούμενο από 32 μηδενικά βαθμούς Κέλβιν).


Η σύγχρονη κοσμολογία και φυσική θεωρούν ότι η κοσμική έκρηξη σηματοδοτεί όχι μόνο την αρχή της ενέργειας (της ύλης), αλλά και την αρχή του χρόνου και του χώρου. Ο χρόνος άρχισε όταν άρχισε ο χώρος, όταν δημιουργήθηκε η ενέργεια και άρχισε από τη στιγμή εκείνη η αέναη, η ακατάπαυστη, αλλαγή και εξέλιξη του φυσικού κόσμου. Η διαστολή του σύμπαντος και η συνακόλουθη πτώση της θερμοκρασίας και της πυκνότητάς του, κυρίως στα πρώτα λεπτά της ηλικίας του, καθόρισε και την υλική σύνθεση του σύμπαντος υπό την αέναη επίδραση των δυνάμεων της φύσης και των ακατάπαυστων μετασχηματισμών της ενέργειας.

«Πώς και γιατί έγινε η κοσμική έκρηξη;» Επιστημονικά δεν γνωρίζουμε. «Τι υπήρχε πριν από την κοσμική έκρηξη;» Πάλι επιστημονικά δεν γνωρίζουμε.  «Ποιοι φυσικοί νόμοι επικρατούσαν τότε και από που προήλθαν;» Και πάλι επιστημονικά δεν γνωρίζουμε.


Παρά ταύτα, υπάρχουν βασικά στοιχεία των ερωτημάτων αυτών για τα οποία η επιστήμη γνωρίζει και μπορεί να αποφανθεί.


Γνωρίζουμε, για παράδειγμα, ότι στην αρχή του κόσμου όλα ήσαν ενέργεια, ασύλληπτη ποσότητα ενέργειας. Αν το big bang είναι η απόλυτη αρχή του κόσμου, είναι και η απόλυτη αρχή της ενέργειας. Από αυτήν την πρωταρχική ενέργεια προήλθε ό,τι υπήρξε  έκτοτε και ό,τι  υπάρχει σήμερα.


Γνωρίζουμε, ακόμη, επιστημονικά, ότι η ενέργεια έχει διάφορες μορφές (λ.χ. θερμική, ηλεκτρική, ηλεκτρομαγνητική, μηχανική, κινητική, χημική, κοκ) και ότι η μάζα (η ύλη) είναι συμπυκνωμένη μορφή ενέργειας.


Γνωρίζουμε ότι η ενέργεια μετατρέπεται από τη μία μορφή στην άλλη και ότι οι μετασχηματισμοί της ενέργειας και η ροή της ενέργειας καθορίζουν τα φυσικά φαινόμενα και την εξέλιξη του φυσικού κόσμου. Γνωρίζουμε, επί πλέον, ότι η ποσότητα της ενέργειας στο σύμπαν παραμένει η ίδια (σταθερή): όση ποσότητα ενέργειας υπήρχε στην αρχή του κόσμου τόση υπάρχει και σήμερα — είναι όμως σήμερα διαφορετικών μορφών και άπειρα και διαφορετικά κατανεμημένη στο σύμπαν. Γνωρίζουμε, μάλιστα, ακόμη, ότι στην αρχή του σύμπαντος υπήρχε μόνο άυλη ενέργεια (φως και «καθαρή» ακτινοβολία) και ότι η υλική σύσταση του φυσικού κόσμου άλλαξε σταδιακά ανάλογα με τη θερμοκρασία του σύμπαντος. Δεν υπήρχαν, για παράδειγμα, ουδέτερα άτομα για πολλές χιλιάδες χρόνια μετά το big bang. Υπήρχε κυρίως φως και ακτινοβολία, και πολύ μικρή ποσότητα ύλης υπό μορφή σωματιδίων και αντισωματιδίων.


Όταν η ηλικία του σύμπαντος ήταν περίπου 380,000 χρόνια και η θερμοκρασία του ~3,000 Κ, τα πρωτόνια, τα νετρόνια και τα ηλεκτρόνια που υπήρχαν άρχισαν να σχηματίζουν σταθερά ουδέτερα άτομα (αρχικά τα άτομα του υδρογόνου και του ηλίου). Έκτοτε, το σύμπαν άρχισε να γεμίζει από ουδέτερη ύλη, το φως που ως τότε ήταν εγκλωβισμένο άρχισε να διαφεύγει στο διάστημα, και η ενεργειακή σύνθεση του σύμπαντος άρχισε να αλλάζει δραματικά. Η απλή ουδέτερη ύλη άρχισε να γίνεται πολυπλοκότερη, να σχηματίζει μεγαλύτερα συστήματα, και ακολούθως άστρα, γαλαξίες, κοκ.


Γνωρίζουμε ακόμη ότι η εξέλιξη του σύμπαντος και η ανάδυση και εξέλιξη της ζωής είναι προϊόντα της αέναης αλλαγής που συνοδεύει τους ακατάπαυστους μετασχηματισμούς της ενέργειας. Παντού και πάντοτε, ακατάπαυστα, η ενέργεια αλλάζει και διαφοροποιεί τη σύσταση του φυσικού κόσμου. Υπήρχε ενέργεια πριν αρχίσει η ζωή, υπήρχε ενέργεια που προετοίμασε το γήινο περιβάλλον για τη ζωή, υπάρχει ενέργεια σήμερα που καθιστά δυνατή τη ζωή, και κατά πάσα πιθανότητα θα υπάρχει ενέργεια στο μέλλον για ένα συνεχώς εξελισσόμενο κόσμο. Αν ο Θαλής ο Μιλήσιος θεωρούσε ότι ο κόσμος αποτελείτο από «νερό», ο σύγχρονος επιστήμονας θεωρεί ότι κατά πάσα πιθανότητα ο κόσμος αποτελείται από «ενέργεια».


Εντούτοις, η επιστήμη αδυνατεί να απαντήσει επαρκώς στο ερώτημα «τι είναι ενέργεια;». Μάλιστα, η επιστήμη αδυνατεί να ερμηνεύσει όλες τις μορφές ενέργειας που γνωρίζουμε. Υπάρχουν, για παράδειγμα, επιστημονικές ενδείξεις ότι η συνηθισμένη ύλη συνιστά μόνο μερικά εκατοστά της μάζας του σύμπαντος και ότι η πλειονότητα (το 73%) της μάζας του σύμπαντος συνίσταται από «σκοτεινή ύλη» και «σκοτεινή ενέργεια» («dark matter” και “dark energy”). Τι είναι η «σκοτεινή ενέργεια»; Προς το παρόν δεν γνωρίζουμε. Και προφανώς υπάρχουν και άλλες μορφές ενέργειας που δεν γνωρίζουμε ακόμη.


Και αυτό με φέρνει στο τελικό ερώτημα της trans-science που επιθυμώ να αναφέρω.


3ο Παράδειγμα: Από που προήλθε η πρωταρχική (primordial) ενέργεια; Αν η ενέργεια και η ύλη εξελίχθηκαν σύμφωνα με τους νόμους και τις δυνάμεις στον φυσικό κόσμο, από που προήλθαν αυτοί οι νόμοι και αυτές οι δυνάμεις;


Αναζητώντας επιστημονικές απαντήσεις στα ερωτήματα αυτά διαπιστώνουμε ότι έχουμε φτάσει και πάλι στα όρια της επιστήμης. Αδυνατεί η επιστήμη να εξηγήσει πώς από το τίποτα, από το μηδέν, μπορεί να γεννηθεί το κάτι, η πρωταρχική ενέργεια. Aκόμη και η εισήγηση μερικών ότι το κβαντικό κενό μπορεί να αποτελέσει πηγή ενέργειας, προϋποθέτει την ύπαρξη αυτού τούτου του κβαντικού κενού και τους νόμους που διέπουν τη συμπεριφορά του — μετατοπίζει το ερώτημα, δεν απαντά το ερώτημα.


4. Προέκταση της επιστημονικής γνώσης


Η αναζήτηση απάντησης στα ερωτήματα αυτά αναγκαστικά οδηγεί πέραν της επιστήμης. Στις περιπτώσεις αυτές που η επιστήμη φτάνει στα όριά της, νομίζω ότι ο επιστήμονας είναι προφανώς ελεύθερος να προεκτείνει την επιστημονική του γνώση και να μετατοπισθεί στο χώρο της trans-science — στην προκειμένη περίπτωση, στο χώρο της φιλοσοφίας, της μεταφυσικής, και ίσως της θρησκείας. Πρέπει όμως να διασαφηνίσει ότι έστω και αν η προέκτασή του στηρίζεται σε επιστημονική γνώση, παραμένει προέκταση πέραν των επιστημονικών δεδομένων, βρίσκεται σε άλλο χώρο.


Ας μου επιτραπεί να δώσω ένα παράδειγμα μιας τέτοιας προέκτασης.


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Θα κινηθώ λοιπόν πέραν της επιστήμης, στη φιλοσοφική διάσταση της ενέργειας.


Κατά τον Αριστοτέλη, η ὕλη είναι ἄφθαρτος και ἀγέννητος. «ἄφθαρτον καὶ ἀγέννητον ἀνάγκη αὐτὴν εἶναι», γράφει. Κατά τον Αριστοτέλη, λοιπόν, η ἐνέργεια είναι αιώνια. Αν όμως δεχθούμε ότι το σύμπαν άρχισε απότομα σε μία στιγμή, σε ένα big bang, αυτή η στιγμή είναι η αρχή του χρόνου και δεν υπήρχε τίποτα «πριν» από αυτή. Επομένως, η απότομη μετάβαση από το απόλυτο «τίποτα» στον κόσμο, σημαίνει ότι η ενέργεια στην αρχή του κόσμου δεν υπήρχε πάντοτε, ότι δεν είναι  αιώνια.


Πολλοί προεκτείνουν ακόμη περισσότερο και επιχειρηματολογούν ότι η ύπαρξη αρχής του σύμπαντος οδηγεί στην ύπαρξη μίας έσχατης πραγματικότητας, ενός όντος, πέραν του φυσικού σύμπαντος, διότι τίποτα δεν μπορεί να αρχίσει να υπάρχει αν τίποτα δεν υπήρχε πριν απ’ αυτό. Επομένως, η ασύλληπτη σε μέγεθος ενέργεια στην αρχή του χρόνου είναι ποσοτικά και χρονικά πεπερασμένη και δημιουργήθηκε από κάτι άλλο που υφίσταται εκτός χώρου και χρόνου, που είναι αιώνιο. Η αρχή, επομένως, του σύμπαντος, το big bang, αποτελεί τη στιγμή της δημιουργίας, την πρωταρχική μετάβαση από το τίποτε στον κόσμο.


Αν λοιπόν δεχθούμε ότι ο κόσμος δημιουργήθηκε από κάποιο ανώτερο ον που βρίσκεται εκτός χώρου και χρόνου, τότε, όχι μόνον  η ενέργεια στην αρχή του χρόνου δημιουργήθηκε εκ του μηδενός τη στιγμή της κοσμικής έκρηξης από το εκτός χώρου και χρόνου αιώνιο όν, αλλά και οι νόμοι που επικρατούσαν στην αρχή του σύμπαντος και αυτοί που ακολούθησαν έκτοτε συνιστούν προεκτάσεις του αιωνίου αυτού όντος στον πεπερασμένο κόσμο. Αν, λοιπόν, ο κόσμος είναι έργο ΔΗΜΙΟΥΡΓΟΥ, τότε το big bang είναι η διαχωριστική γραμμή ανάμεσα στο αιώνιο και το πεπερασμένο.


Ας προεκτείνουμε, ωστόσο, λίγο ακόμη στη φιλοσοφία του Αριστοτέλη για την ενέργεια. Ο Αριστοτέλης θεωρούσε την πρώτη ύλη ως την πηγή όλων των πραγμάτων, όλων των εν ενεργεία όντων. Κατά τον Αριστοτέλη, η πρώτη ύλη εμπεριείχε τη μορφή (το εδος) ν δυνάμει. Η μετάβαση από την πρώτη ύλη στη μορφή, ἀπό τὸ ἐν δυνάμει εἰς τὸ ἐν ἐνεργεία όν είναι η φυσική συνέπεια της μεταξύ τους υφιστάμενης αέναης κίνησης. Εάν λοιπόν θεωρήσουμε ότι η πρώτη ύλη του Αριστοτέλη ταυτίζεται με την πρωταρχική ενέργεια στην αρχή του σύμπαντος, αναγνωρίζουμε στοιχεία της Αριστοτελικής φιλοσοφίας που σαφώς σχετίζονται με την επιστημονική άποψη. Η αρχική ενέργεια, μέσω των φυσικών πεδίων που δημιουργεί και των δυνάμεων που αυτά παράγουν, μετασχηματίζεται ακατάπαυστα και οι μετασχηματισμοί αυτοί της ενέργειας επιφέρουν την ακατάπαυστη αλλαγή του φυσικού κόσμου και την εξέλιξή του, και κατά συνέπεια τη μετάβαση ἀπό τὸ ἐν δυνάμει εἰς τὸ ἐν ἐνεργεία όν. Όλα ήσαν δυνατά «εν δυνάμει», όπως υποστήριζε ο Αριστοτέλης, και όλα γίνονται υπαρκτά, εν ενεργεία όντα, με την πάροδο του χρόνου.


Ας αποδεχθούμε, λοιπόν, τελικά, μία αρχή της ενέργειας, του χρόνου και του χώρου, η ερμηνεία της οποίας βρίσκεται πέραν της επιστήμης (όχι όμως και πέραν της φιλοσοφίας) και, σε αντίθεση με τον Αριστοτέλη, αλλά σύμφωνα με τη σύγχρονη επιστήμη, ας αποδεχθούμε ότι η ενέργεια (η ύλη) δεν είναι ούτε άπειρη ούτε αιώνια. Τότε μπορούμε να περιγράψουμε την κοσμική δημιουργία και τη διαδοχική πορεία που την ακολούθησε ως εξής:

Αρχική Πηγή (Επιστημονικά Άγνωστη) → Αρχική Ενέργεια → Ύλη (Μάζα και Ακτινοβολία) → Φυσικά Δυναμικά Πεδία (Fields) → Δυνάμεις → Μετασχηματισμοί Ενέργειας → Αέναη Αλλαγή → Εξέλιξη → Κόσμος


Ένας κόσμος που είναι πάντοτε εφήμερος γιατί συνεχώς αλλάζει και συνεχώς εξελίσσεται.


Αυτό, λοιπόν, είναι ένα παράδειγμα προέκτασης από την επιστημονική γνώση στη φιλοσοφία και τη μεταφυσική. Σε μία μεθόριο με βαθιά υπαρξιακή σημασία.

5. Συμπεράσματα

Κλείνοντας, επιθυμώ να συμπεράνω ότι και οι δύο κατηγορίες ερωτημάτων της «trans-science» που ανάφερα δείχνουν ότι:

– Υπάρχουν όρια στις δυνατότητες της επιστήμης, όρια τα οποία αν και συνεχώς μετατοπίζονται με την πρόοδο της επιστήμης,  μερικά, εντούτοις, παραμένουν.

– Επιβάλλεται η αναγνώριση της σημασίας των επιστημονικά αναπάντητων ερωτημάτων, κυρίως σε ό,τι αφορά τον επιστήμονα, ο οποίος καλείται να προσφέρει την όποια επιστημονική γνώση κατέχει επ΄ αυτών, αλλά και να διασαφηνίσει το σημείο στο οποίο η επιστήμη σταματά και η «trans-science» αρχίζει.


Ως επιστήμονες και ως πολίτες, έχουμε καθήκον να αναβάλλουμε απαντήσεις και σε καυτά ακόμη επιστημονικά ερωτήματα της trans-science όταν δεν υπάρχουν επιστημονικά δεδομένα που να δικαιολογούν επιστημονικές απαντήσεις.


Τελικά, κυρίες και κύριοι, νομίζω, ότι είναι επιτρεπτή η προέκταση της επιστημονικής γνώσης πέραν των αυστηρών επιστημονικών ορίων, υπό την προϋπόθεση ότι διαχωρίζουμε, με αυστηρή σαφήνεια, πότε κινούμαστε εντός της επιστήμης και πότε προεκτείνουμε τη γνώση μας πέραν της επιστήμης.


Η υποχρέωση αυτή είναι ιδιαίτερα σημαντική, κυρίως όταν διδάσκουμε τους νέους.


Ευχαριστώ.



Bulletin No. 100

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

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Member Update- BULLETIN

Editorial Committee: Ahilleas Adamantiades, Alex Economides, Maria-Eleftheria Giatrakou, Dean C. Lomis, Katherine Efthymiatou-Stabile



Messages of Peace, Love, Joy, Faith and Hope

“Amid the hustle and bustle of the holidays may you find time to pause, to reflect….and to rejoice in the true meaning of Christmas.”

 

The above statement is the central  message that Ashland University of Ohio is affectionately beaming to the world this Christmas. The message comes in a charming way, underscored with effects of digital technology. You can enjoy it with the entire family on this link: We are indebted to our colleague Dr. Pandelis Halamandaris for combining this message wiith his own Christmas greetings addressed to all of us. We are happy to reciprocate the wishes and to relay them to all members and friends of the Hellenic Link.

Once more at Christmas, our very esteemed colleague and co-worker Dimitrios Oreopoulos is sending to the Hellenic Link family his warm wishes and greetings in an all-encompassing life report. We are accepting and presenting it to our members and friends with humble gratitude for his continuing robust contributions to HL’s scientific, cultural and educational objectives, now under a unique and profoundly trying circumstance. As always, his Christmas letter- report mirrors substantive personal and family blessings, for which he can be abundantly happy—and so are we with him; but also, it comes with an expression of a transcending, deep Christian Faith, with which he places his entire life- past, present and future- in the hands of God. With his precious message, he gives us a spiritually perfect Christmas gift! Prayerfully, let us keep it deep in our hearts, as we celebrate the redeeming first coming of Christ:

CHRISTMAS 2011 and New Year 2012

To all our friends,

Although I think of all of you all year round, this time you are in my mind most intensely. May God keep all of you and your family well not only the coming year but for many years to come.

Our family, with four children and four grandchildren is very blessed:

 

  

George is a successful vascular surgeon at the Toronto General Hospital . His wife Amrit is a nephrologist at the St Joseph ‘s Hospital and their two boys, Dimitris, seven, and Costas, four years-old, are growing up involved in many activities. Philip enjoys his research in economics. He will be promoted soon to full professor at U. of T. He and Marcella, who works in finance at Bell, have Lukas, three, and one year-old Nicole. Our daughter Antigone in Edmonton finished her Ph.D. in Clinical Epidemiology and continues her MBA program. John finished his Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering and has a great job in an Optics manufacturing company here in Toronto. His wife, Michelle is a practicing family physician. Nancy is well except for a knee that will soon need replacement due to arthritis.

My year did not end up so well because my non Hodgkin’s Lymphoma that I have had since 2008, transformed to something more aggressive in my brain. I am feeling much better after an intense round of treatments in the fall. It is difficult to get used to not seeing patients, not working and not driving. This is a new way of living, having left my life in God’s hands. I am totally satisfied, thankful for my 75 years of life and all the family and friends we have. This makes me serene and ready to accept God’s decision for me. He has guided me all these years and I am confident that he will continue taking care of me all the way to the end whenever He decides.

We look forward to celebrating Christmas at our home with all our children and their families. I remember of all of my friends and how much I love you all. We are sending you our best wishes for both Christmas and the New Year. With all my love for the great times we had together in the past,

Dimitrios

Pleading in Defense of the Church at a World Forum

The Problems of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Istanbul

Mr. Fanis Economides

Introduction. We are present, again this year, at the 2011 OSCE Human Dimension Implementation Meeting, to represent the Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle, which is a United States-based organization of Orthodox Christian laymen, whose mission is to defend the rights and prerogatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and to preserve its important role in the spiritual life of Orthodox Christians and of persons of faith in the world. We are pleased to acknowledge a number of important steps, including properties of non–Muslim Foundations that the current Government of Turkey has been taking over the past year since the last OSCE-Human Dimension Meeting in this city. We refer specifically to one step taken just one month ago, to correct egregious past injustices and discriminatory practices that have, over long years, injured the Ecumenical Patriarchate’s health and well being and presented serious obstacles to its normal functioning in its spiritual role in the world.

However, the Order of St. Andrew is not fully satisfied on all accounts and the current situation, even after the announced corrective measures are implemented, will be desirable from our point of view and, even more importantly, from the perspective of human rights standards, such as the Human Rights Convention, and standards for the freedom of religion of international bodies namely, the European Union, which Turkey is aspiring to join as a full member, the United States, and the United Nations. Just as we are cognizant and thankful for encouraging developments, to which we are prepared to assign full credit, we will insist on strict implementation of good intentions and full compliance with international law and the principles of OSCE of which Turkey is a member.

The process for the election of a new Ecumenical Patriarch.

There has been some progress in the process of electing a new Ecumenical Patriarch. The latest information, as of this writing, is that 26 Metropolitans have applied for Turkish citizenship, 18 have been approved, and the remaining 8 are pending. We hope the approval process will continue apace and all eligible applicants will be approved. This recent ruling, once fully implemented, will add a considerable number of Orthodox prelates to the small pool of indigenous electors for the election of a new Ecumenical Patriarch. While recognizing the positive steps taken for accommodation, we feel compelled to ask why any restrictions at all should apply and any interference be exerted to the internal proceedings of the Ecumenical Patriarchate or of any religious group for that matter, especially when the office in question is one of spiritual relevance and authority.

The “Ecumenical”

The title “Ecumenical,” that the entire world uses in addressing and referring to His All-Holiness, the Patriarch of Constantinople, is an issue of paramount importance to the Order of St. Andrew and to the entire world. The term means that the See of Constantinople pertains to the entire “inhabited world.” We repeat here briefly the points we made last year: (a) the See was founded by the Apostle Andrew, the first-called Apostle of Jesus, in 37 A.D., in the town of Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople, and present-day Istanbul; (b) its position and prestige was formally elevated in the year 451 A. D., at the Fourth Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church; (c) the See has served, over the centuries, as the religious center for stature in which the Bishop of Constantinople was held by the rest of Christendom. After Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and in succeeding centuries, the Ecumenical Patriarchate continued its existence in Istanbul, exercising its spiritual ministry over world-wide Orthodoxy.

The matter of the title “Ecumenical” has also been the subject of deliberation by the Venice Commission. At its 82nd Plenary Session, in Venice, 12-13 March 2010, the Commission expressed a formal opinion, which was affirmed in an opinion issued in July 2011, stating, among other things:

“However, taking into account the fact that the word “Ecumenical” forms part of the title of the Patriarchate and has done so since the 6th century, and that this title is widely recognised and used globally, the Venice Commission fails to see any reason, factual or legal, for the authorities not to address the Ecumenical Patriarchate by its historical
and generally recognised title.”

We regret to report to this conference that recognition of “Ecumenical,” as a legitimate and historical title, is still denied to the Patriarch of Constantinople by the Government of Turkey, which continues to view him as the Bishop of a flock of 2,500 Greek Orthodox faithful. We feel that this attitude and denial of a historic and legitimate title is unacceptable; it diminishes the stature of the Ecumenical Patriarch, defies history, contradicts universal Christian practice, and works against Turkey’s ambitions to present itself as a reformed and modern country.

Denial of Legal Personality.

Lack of recognition of its legal identity has been, for many years, and continues to be to this day, an instrument of deliberate attrition on the part of the Government of Turkey and a major impediment to the functioning of the Ecumenical Patriarchate as a normal institution in Turkish society, as it has also been the case for all other religious bodies in Turkey, hampering their normal existence and operations in every-day life. Unfortunately, this issue remains largely unresolved.

Restriction on Free Religious Education.

The Theological School at Halki (Heybeliada) was closed in 1971, thus seriously depriving the Ecumenical Patriarchate of its ability to educate its clergy and lay theologians and to be, by its ecumenical role, a center of Orthodox learning, research, and scholarship.

Over the past few decades, the opening of Halki has become a thorny and recalcitrant issue over which much diplomatic energy has been expended. In addition, The Ecumenical Patriarchate has severe visa restrictions placed by the Turkish government on students, priests and other staff who wish to visit it in order to study and serve there. The Ecumenical Patriarchate is not permitted to have its own printing facility, publish religious journals, treatises and books,creating a serious hindrance to its theological and pastoral function.

The references, entreaties, requests and exhortations toward the opening of this School have been legion over the years, as was narrated in much detail in our last year’s presentation. Many authoritative and weighty voices, including those made by Presidents of the U.S., high officials of the European Union, and many organizations, including the Order of St. Andrew, have lined up in one direction, namely toward convincing the Government of Turkey that, in addition to serving the needs of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the opening of Halki would also serve the interests of Turkey, especially at this juncture of trying to join the E.U.; but to no avail, to this minute — we regret to say. Recent steps toward decisive reforms may yet afford a basis for hope that the Government of Turkey will look, seriously this time, into the resolution of this problem without further delay.

Property Confiscations.

Property confiscations have been among the top grievances of Patriarchal institutions and other civil bodies of the Greek Orthodox minority associated with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, to a great extent because it deprived them of means of sustenance and growth. In this paper, we wish to mention, with deep satisfaction, the return to the Ecumenical Patriarchate of the Orphanage on the island of Prinkipos (Büyükada), following much litigation, including, at the end, before the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). The order of this Court was implemented, in late November 2010, through a deed in the name of “Rum Patrikhanesi.”

Just as this paper was being drafted, it was revealed that very important step, was taken on Sunday, 28-August-2011, by means of a Decree, announced at a meeting of P.M. Erdo?an with representatives of religious minorities that the Government of Turkey has decided (by adding a new transitional article, no 11, to the 2008 Foundation Law), to return properties confiscated from religious minorities’ foundations since 1936 and pay fair compensation for seized assets that have since been sold by the Turkish state to third parties. Although those who have lost style=’color:black’> their properties maintain serious doubts, shared to a large extent by the Order of St. Andrew, as to the real intentions of the Government of Turkey, the number of properties that will, in fact, be returned, the timing and procedures of submission of needed documentation, and other details, the move must be recognized as a radical break with a long-standing policy, opening new ground and offering important possibilities for better relations between the Government of Turkey and religious minorities. This initiative will enable P.M. Erdo?an to appear in European capitals with renewed credibility and confidence in his leadership role in Turkey.

Liturgy at the Soumela Monastery.

On the positive side, for the second year in a row, the Ecumenical Patriarch was given permission to officiate liturgy, following 88 years of closure, on August 15th, the day of the Dormition of the Theotokos, at the historic monastery of Soumela, near Trabzon on the Black Sea. A large contingent of visitors was also granted permission to attend
including Archbishop Demetrios of America, a bishop representing Patriarch Kyrill of Moscow and all Russia, laymen from Greece, Russia, Turkey, Georgia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, the United States, Australia, and other countries as well as many clerics – each participant having to be pre-approved by the Turkish authorities. However, we cannot refrain from raising an uncomfortable question: why should the granted permission be recognized as an earth-shaking event of reform when for most civilized persons and countries, it is considered a normal, almost routine expression of religious faith, especially when taking place at a religious site that has been used for such religious rites for centuries?

Conclusions and Recommendations.

The criticisms of the status of religious freedom and human rights contained in this paper are based on the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the Vienna and Copenhagen Concluding Documents. They represent the views of the Order of St. Andrew the Apostle on the plight of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and the need for
improvement by the Government of Turkey, but also reflect the hope for the life ahead. We state that the rights we are claiming here are inherent to the Ecumenical Patriarchate and must be respected and defended by the public authorities of Turkey not only for the sake of the Ecumenical Patriarchate itself but also for other Christian denominations and other faiths in the country as well.

We take a dual tack: on one hand, we highlight the Government of Turkey’s failures to live up to these principles, notwithstanding the fact that it is a signatory to the OSCE. On the other hand, we welcome with hope and optimism recent actions and announcements by the government and are watching to see actual implementation and real change in government’s thinking and action. We emphasize especially that the Government of Turkey must follow up with deeds the Government Decree to return the seized (mazbut) properties of non-Muslim Foundations and churches to their legitimate owners, or provide reasonable and fair compensation, according to the recent decision and Decree, of
28-August-2011.

Introducing fuller reforms in the area of religious freedom, and implementing them with concrete actions, without arbitrary or distorted interpretation, bureaucratic obfuscation, and dilatory tactics, will provide strong proof that Turkey is ready, willing, and ethe international arena and become a paradigm for emulation in the entire world.

———————————–

3 The historic Monastery of Panagia Soumela in Trabzon stands at the foot of a cliff—partially constructed in the rock—facing the Altindere Valley in the Macka region of Trabzon Province, Turkey. The monastery was founded inthe year 386 AD during the reign of the Emperor Theodosius the Great. It gained wide prominence and imperial protection in the 13th-14th centuries. Over the centuries, the monastery fell into ruin several times, was restored by various Emperors and seized by the Russian Empire during the occupation of Trabzon in the years 1916-1918. The site was destroyed by the Neo-Turks in 1922, abandoned the following year during the forced exchange of populations after the Treaty of Lausanne, and finally converted into a museum and tourist attraction.

Editor’s Note: The above Paper presented in its entirety at the OSCE Meeting by Mr. Fanis Economides, Archon Ekdikos, under the title “Freedom of Thought, Conscience, Religion or Belief: The Problems of the Ecumenical Patiarchate in Istanbul” will appear at the HL Web Site soon along with a companion Paper, presented by Dr. Achilles G. Adamantiades, Archon, Defender of Letters, under the title

Fundamental Freedoms II: National Human Rights Institutions and the Role of Civil Society in the Protection of Human
Rights.”

A Current Perspective of the Greek Financial Crisis

A WINDOW OF OPPORTUNITY FOR THE GREEK ECONOMY

By Evangelos A. Calamitsis*

Greece faces major challenges, fraught with great risks, owing to a combination of adjustment fatigue, political uncertainties, increased disenchantment on the part of the country’s partners, and a widening euro-area crisis. But the recent formation of a transitional unity government, with large political support, provides Greece with a window of opportunity to bring its economic reform program back on track and regain the confidence of its partners. To be successful, this opportunity will have to be fully seized and focused on some urgent actions. In particular, in the period immediately ahead, all of the prior actions agreed upon under the current program supported by style=”mso-spacerun: yes”> Greece’s euro-area partners and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) will have to be carried out in order to unlock the much-needed sixth tranche of program loans by mid-December. Moreover, negotiations will have to be completed on a credible new program for 2012-14 that would attract further official support, as well as private sector involvement (PSI) designed to reduce substantially
the country’s sovereign debt.

It should be remembered that since May 2010, when the current reform program was adopted, Greece has taken some significant steps toward macroeconomic adjustment and structural reform. However, program implementation and performance have been uneven. More seriously, over the course of this year, social tensions and resistance to reform have grown; program implementation has slowed, leading to significant policy slippages; and as economic conditions and market sentiment in Europe have weakened, Greece’s overall economic situation has worsened. Thus, for 2011 as a whole, it is estimated that the real gross domestic product (GDP) will decline by 5.5-6.0 percent; unemployment will be around 16.0 percent; and the overall fiscal deficit of the general government will be of the order of 9.0 percent of GDP, well above the program target of 7.5 percent, contributing to a further rise in the already high public debt. The situation would have been even more dire if it were not for an increase in exports and tourism.

Against this background, Greece’s euro-area partners and the IMF have continued to provide Greece with considerable financial assistance, as well as technical support. Indeed, through July 2011, their combined program loans have amounted to about 65 billion euros, or some 60 percent of the total (110 billion euros) pledged for the current three-year program. And on the basis of policy understandings reached with the Greek authorities, the EU-IMF agreed in principle to disburse the sixth tranche of program loans of about 8 billion euros envisaged under the program. As part of the decisions taken at the Euro Summit in Cannes on October 26, 2011,Greece’s partners reiterated this agreement; and they set the stage for “the conclusion of a sustainable and credible new EU-IMF multiannual programme by the end of the year”. As is well known, the Euro Summit also dealt with the broader issues regarding the monetary union, notably leveraging the resources of the European Financial Stability Facility, recapitalizing and funding European banks, strengthening economic and fiscal coordination and surveillance, and enhancing governance structures and integration.

But rather unexpectedly, soon after the Cannes Summit, political developments in Greece led to ambiguities and uncertainties about its commitment to the reform program and adherence to the summit decisions, thereby adversely affecting the country’s policy credibility. In the circumstances, disbursement of the planned program assistance to Greece was delayed.

Immediate Actions

The Greek unity government, headed by a highly respected economist and former Vice-President of the European Central Bank, has been widely welcomed by Greece’s partners. Yet, it has to build upon the improved sentiment by removing existing uncertainties and restoring the country’s policy credibility. For a start, the new government needs to put firmly in place all the policies and measures already agreed upon. These include adopting a sound budget for 2012; intensifying the fight against tax evasion and improving tax collection; reducing non-priority outlays, without accumulating payment arrears; streamlining and downsizing the public administration; increasing the pace of privatization; and giving full force to the structural reform designed to foster labor market liberalization and open up the highly regulated professions. In addition, the new government as well as the political party leaders supporting the government need to provide adequate assurances to the EU-IMF that Greece is genuinely committed to pursuing its reform efforts and discharging the obligations stemming from the euro-area decisions of October 26. If sufficiently convincing, these assurances and actions would not only allow the disbursement of the critical sixth tranche of EU-IMF program loans but also facilitate the negotiations on a new medium-term program.

Medium-Term Program

The Greek program for 2012-14 should be ambitious but realistic, and its rationale should be well explained to the general public and the business community. The projected further contraction of the nation’s output and the rise in unemployment in 2012 are most worrisome. Hence, as the program’s macroeconomic framework and policy components are still being worked out, it is to be hoped that high priority will be given to reviving the economy and jobs by increasing investment and accelerating structural reforms. To these ends, with the technical support of the European Commission’s Task Force for Greece, the authorities should expedite preparation and implementation of a large number of identified investment projects that can be financed largely by European structural funds. They should also encourage both foreign and domestic private investment through the simplified procedures and other means already in place, as well as take concrete steps to meet the credit requirements of viable small and medium-sized enterprises.

At the same time, the program should vigorously pursue the basic goals of consolidating public finances, improving competitiveness, and safeguarding the financial system and monetary stability, while protecting the most vulnerable groups of society. In view of the need to put the public debt situation on a sustainable path, and quite apart from the expected private sector contribution to debt reduction, it will be most important to generate sizable primary fiscal surpluses (which exclude interest payments) over the medium term. In this respect, the 2012 draft budget now before Parliament represents a step in the right direction, envisaging for the first time in recent years a primary fiscal surplus equivalent to 1.1 percent of GDP, compared with large deficits in 2009-11. The medium-term strategy will also need to focus on the following specific policies and measures:

· Promote

tax reform and combat tax evasion in that tax reform should aim at establishing a simpler, fairer, and more stable tax system. At this juncture, no new taxes or further tax rate increases would be advisable or tolerable; rather, some ofthe recent increases an VAT and other tax rates would need to be reconsideredand possibly rescinded.· Reduce

the government wage bill and other outlays, while ensuring social safety nets for the poor.

· Rationalize

and downsize the public sector, particularly the loss-making state enterprises. · Accelerate
efforts to make effective use of the large portfolio of state assets through

privatization and real estate development.

· Enhance
liberalization of the economy to improve competitiveness, support the

growth of exports, and help develop the key tourist and
shipping sectors.

· Recapitalize
Greek banks and strengthen the financial position of social security funds.

· Foster
reforms designed to improve education at all levels, rehabilitate the national

health system, and render the legal system more efficient.

· Promote
research and technology in priority areas, including renewable energy, with a view to boosting innovation and potential growth.

On the basis of such a reform program, Greece should expect to reach understandings for substantial debt relief from its private sector creditors. Indeed, as indicated in the Euro Summit Statement of October 26, PSI in support of Greece would be expected to be deeper than envisaged last July, involving a voluntary bond exchange with a nominal discount of 50 percent on national Greek sovereign debt held by private investors. Such a debt reduction, coupled with the previous decisions of euro-area member states to extend the maturities and lower the interest rates of their program loans to Greece, would alleviate significantly the country’s debt burden.

But it is to be hoped that the negotiations with private sector holders of Greek debt, which are likely to be controversial, will be satisfactorily concluded on a voluntary basis; that participation rates will be high; and that the specific options and terms of the enhanced PSI will not lead to any dilution of the expected debt reduction.

On their part, Greece’s euro-area partners have pledged to contribute 30 billion euros in support of the PSI package. Moreover, the EU-IMF are expected to provide additional program financing of up to 100 billion euros in 2012-14, including the resources required to recapitalize Greek banks. To sum up, barring any political mishaps in Greece and a worsening of conditions in the euro area, Greece now has a window of opportunity to reinvigorate its reform program and hopefully pave the way for resolving its economic and debt crisis with the support of its partners. The achievement of the country’s basic goals will take time and continued efforts to ensure effective program implementation; it will also require national cohesion that will have to be sustained for many years beyond the life of the current administration.

* Former Director at the International Monetary Fund.


This article was posted in

www.ekathimerini.com on

November 29, 2011.

From the Cultural
Interests and Activities of Our Members and Friends

BOOK ANNOUNCEMENT

T’Anthropina by Kostas Tsotsos

Greece’s current crisis is not her first one. Greece has endured many crises, has survived and emerged even greater than before. The poem: written by my father, Kostas Tsotsos (1920-2004), on August 10, 1943 while he struggled for freedom from the Nazi occupation in the mountains of northern Greece, immortalizes this:

Human Rights in Turkey 2011

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

Human Rights for the Greek Minority in Turkey – end Discrimination – Prepare for the Turkey that Lives the Role of the transition point from East to West and Vice Versa

 

 

Fundamental Freedoms II: National Human Rights Institutions and the Role of Civil Society in the Protection of Human Rights

The Greek Orthodox Minority in Turkey

The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)

2011 Human Dimension Implementation Meeting

Warsaw, Poland

Working Session 12: 4 October 2011

Presented by Archon, Defender of Letters, Dr. Achilles G. Adamantiades

 

A. Introduction

1. The Order of St. Andrew, the Apostle is pleased to attend this OSCE Meeting of 2011, in Warsaw, to speak about the continuing need for protection of the rights of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and its local flock, the Greek Orthodox minority of Turkey.  We have addressed the religious freedom issues and the rights of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in a separate paper, presented in Session 2, and we wish, in this session, to focus on the principles of human rights as they apply to the Greek community but also, by extension, to other religious minorities in Turkey. We do not see ourselves as adversaries of Turkey but as her sincere friends because the issues that concern us here are perfectly aligned with the interests of Turkey, in light of the aspirations expressed by the current Government of Turkey, which has made accession to the European Union (E.U.) the number one priority of its foreign policy. We support this aspiration and wish success in this endeavor.

2. As we make our remarks, we are fully cognizant, and indeed appreciative, of a new policy and new official awareness that strongly indicates that the current Government of Turkey understands the imperative of the times.  This means that espousing and practicing the same principles of human rights as do modern, democratic states of the world and, specifically, the countries of the E.U., brings Turkey to a higher level of international recognition and makes good its membership of OSCE and signature of its Charter. These principles include, among others, freedom of religious worship, non-discriminatory and fair treatment of all citizens without exception, and protection of the rights of minorities.

B. Violations of the Human Rights of Minorities

3. Although several steps have been taken by the current Government of Turkey, including constitutional and other legal reforms, we are compelled to state that conditions for the full respect of human rights do not yet prevail in Turkey.  Specifically in the case of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, there has been a systematic and premeditated drive by successive Turkish governments, especially in the past 100 years, to confiscate its properties, under various pretexts, thus depriving it of the resources to adequately fulfill its role in the world. The following highlights are but the most egregious violations of the Ecumenical Patriarchate’s rights:

       The Ecumenical Patriarchate together with other churches and faiths, including the Roman Catholic Church, the Armenian Church, and the Jewish faith, have not been able to gain recognition as legal personalities in Turkey.

        The Venice Commission, a consultative body to the Council of Europe, at its 82nd Plenary Session, in Venice, 12-13 March 2010, stated thusly its formal opinion:(1)

“In view of the strict requirements established in the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights, the Venice Commission sees no reason which would justify not granting to religious communities as such the possibility to obtain legal personality. It therefore recommends that Turkey should introduce legislation that would make it possible for religious communities as such to acquire and maintain legal personality.”

       One serious consequence of the above problem has been the inability for them to own property. The Ecumenical Patriarchate, together with other faiths, has been continually vulnerable to confiscation of its properties; over 75% of its properties (and those of related institutions) have been confiscated through devious and underhanded methods.

       Turkish Courts have repeatedly upheld predatory and confiscatory actions against the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Greek minority, their institutions and resources.

        Exorbitant taxes on social services were placed by the Government of Turkey on organizations supported by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, as in the case of the Balukli Hospital which serves, indeed, all Turkish citizens without discrimination.

4. Minority Schools. Although some reforms have been instituted, facilitating their function, onerous regulations make it difficult for non-Muslim children to register and attend their community schools, which is leading to the schools’ gradual disappearance even as they were meant to be protected under the Lausanne Treaty of 1923, as shown in more detail in the May 2011 Report of USCIRF.(2) Working documents of the E.U. also highlight this issue. They state:

Minority schools face a number of procedural and bureaucratic difficulties having to do with registration, budget shortages, lack of professional training and sustainability problems due to the number of students (restricted by law on condition that they must be from the same minority) plus administrative issues and educational problems.”

5. The Ergenecon conspiracy – a serious threat to religious minorities. The case of Ergenecon has surfaced in recent years with shaking effect to the Turkish society, made publicly visible because the Government of P.M. Erdoğan decided to move against it, based on the allegation and suspicion that it was also threatened by this secret organization. Without going into this explosive case which has powerful political overtones, we can highlight that certain Turkish groups have allegedly plotted against the life of the Ecumenical Patriarch, the Armenian Patriarch, an Alevi leader, and a prominent Jewish businessman. Allegedly, Ergenecon plotted to overthrow the Government of Turkey and has been implicated in planning violent activities against religious minorities, including the 2006 murder of a Catholic priest in Trabzon, the 2007 murder of three Protestant employees and the 2007 murder of Armenian journalist, Hrant Dink, in Istanbul. It has even been alleged that a Turkish army general plotted to plant weapons in the homes of followers of a Muslim preacher, as a provocation, by creating fears of Islamic radicalism. We note with satisfaction that the current government has understood that it also is not immune to such violent attacks that target, in essence, the social and political stability of Turkey, and has moved decisively against the organization.

6. The Order of St. Andrew will continue to encourage the Government of Turkey to clamp down on underground groups that threaten violence and to show determination in pursing and eliminating them, while at the same time, safeguarding the safety, freedom of movement, and property rights of all religious leaders and persons and of minority civic associations and organizations.

7. A Historical Perspective. The twentieth century has seen the emergence of world-wide movements to highlight the plight of millions, if not billions, of people, to defend the victims and to adopt international treaties to prevent violations that may have been tolerated earlier. It is distressing to note that violation of human rights has been a pervasive and persistent policy in Turkey, as thoroughly documented in many previous conferences of OSCE, reports of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF),(3) many other international bodies, the Turkish press, and in previous presentations of the Order of St. Andrew.

8. Suffice it for us to state that a continuous policy of harassment, over the past sixty (60) years, has driven down the Greek population of Turkey, from over 100,000 in the 1950’s to less than 2,500 at present. Today, the Turkish citizens of Greek heritage (and by extension the entire Christian minority) in Turkey, is an endangered species. This systematic plan of attrition has resulted in Turkish citizens of Greek heritage representing no more than 0.03% of the total population. The recorded demographic and economic decline as well as the dramatic reduction in property owned by minorities over the years, offer unequivocal proof of the deep and persistent strategy of oppression and persecution of the Greek and other ethnic minorities by the Turkish Government. However, this year, we will not elaborate further on these violations, as we choose to focus attention on positive developments which have arisen, especially in the last couple of months.

C. Positive Developments

9. During the month of August 2011, the Government of Turkey, held by the Muslim Democratic Justice and Development Party (AKP), took significant measures towards consolidating democracy. Chief among them was a series of moves towards establishing civilian authority over the military and putting an end to military tutelage over democracy. These measures are at the root of reforms that allowed the Government of Turkey to change its attitude toward ethnic and religious minorities in Turkey and, for this reason, are relevant to the thrust of this paper. Although, constitutionally, the military was the protector of the secular state apparatus, the claimed “secular” policy was but a mere cover and pretext for egregious violations of religious freedom and the rights of religious groups, including ethnic and religious minorities, as well Muslims.

10. In this same context, the Government of Turkey moved against the clandestine, ultranationalist group, known as Ergenekon, which was mentioned above (para. 5). After the recent mass resignations of military officers, P.M. Erdoğan refused to promote officers who allegedly plotted within Ergenekon to topple his Islamic-oriented government and commit violence against numerous faith communities and their houses of worship. These moves clearly illustrate the Government’s enhanced self-confidence and underpin its bold moves to take further steps, unheard of until this time, to restore the rights of ethnic and religious minorities, as will be elaborated in the following paragraphs.

11. We recognize that P.M. Erdoğan, as the inheritor of this so-called “secular” legacy, and his AK Party have faced an uphill battle to deepen Turkey’s democratic institutions and culture. But their bold moves to bolster civilian rule have decisive and positive implications for the respect of international human rights norms, including religious freedom and the rights of minorities.

The Return of the Prinkipos (Büyükada) Orphanage

12. A major legal development took place in 2008 with a landmark legal decision by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) to which Turkey is a signatory. Briefly, following much litigation, on July 7, 2008, the Ecumenical Patriarchate obtained a ruling in its favor and again, on June 15, 2010, ECHR issued a new judgment ordering the Government of Turkey to return the Orphanage to the Ecumenical Patriarchate. This order was implemented by the issuance of an order by the Court of Büyükada which produced, in late November 2010, a deed for the property in the name of Rum Patrikhanesi.(4)

Permission for religious ceremonies at the Soumela Monastery.

13. For the second year in a row, following 88 years of closure, the Ecumenical Patriarch was given permission to officiate liturgy on August 15th, 2011, the day of the Dormition of the Theotokos, at the historic monastery of Soumela, near Trabzon on the Black Sea, as was elaborated in our paper on Religious Freedom presented in Session 2 of this Meeting. We do hope that the Government of Turkey, in its current reformist mind, will decide to allow the use of religious shrines of all faiths by their rightful owners completely unimpeded and free of direct or indirect interference by state or para-statal organizations.

Property Return or Compensation

14. Massive property confiscations have been among the top grievances of Patriarchal institutions and other civil bodies of the Greek Orthodox minority, to a great extent because it deprived them of means of sustenance and growth. The Greek Orthodox Church in Istanbul owned several thousand properties in 1936, reduced to a few hundred today, many of them being small churches or other buildings of varied commercial value. In previous presentations, a great deal of detail was presented on such confiscations and on the difficulties encountered in obtaining legal redress. However, a seismic event occurred, just as we were preparing this presentation, and it should now take a prominent place in our discussion.

15. Before we elaborate on this announcement, however, we need to make reference again to the event that falls in this category which was already mentioned in para. 12, above, because it can be viewed as a good-omen precursor to the announcement and, perhaps, as having played a catalytic role in its inception and promulgation.

16. This momentous move took place on Sunday, 28-August-2011, at a dinner-meeting (an iftar) of P.M. Erdoğan with representatives of religious minorities. The P.M. announced that the government of Turkey has decided to return properties confiscated from religious minorities’ foundations since 1936 and pay fair compensation for seized (mazbut) assets that have since been sold by the Turkish state to third parties. A Government of Turkey Decree had been issued on Saturday, 27-August-2011, to this effect, just hours before the announcement – the Decree added a new transitional article, no 11, to the 2008 Foundation Law. The P.M. had invited to this celebration leaders of Christian and Jewish communities – including Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew. It is noteworthy that the Decree was issued in the face of strong opposition from the Kemalist CHP and smaller nationalist parties, which indicates that the P.M. feels secure in taking bold steps of reform in this critical matter, based on his strong showing in the recent elections as well in the decisive support he received in the referendum on constitutional reform held earlier (in 2010). Parties interested in the return of confiscated properties were invited to submit the relevant documentation to the Directorate General of Foundations within 12 months.

17. The Decree provides:

       – the restitution of properties as they were surveyed and registered in 1936 and subsequently confiscated from the religious foundations by the various administrations of the Republic of Turkey;

      – the return of the management of cemeteries belonging to non-Muslim foundations, which have been improperly sold to various towns and municipalities;

      – the restitution of undefined deeded property (such as monasteries and parishes), which were never recognized as legal entities by the Turkish Republic.

      – In the event that these properties have been sold or disposed of in various ways by the Turkish state parties, the Minister of Finance of the Republic of Turkey will establish, with the owners, a just compensation.

18. The decision concerns hundreds of hospitals, schools, cemeteries and orphanages as listed in a 1936 census. According to unofficial estimates that appeared in the press, the Decree provides for the restitution of 1000 properties to the Greek-orthodox Christians, 100 to the Armenians, numerous properties to the Chaldean Catholics and also to the Jews. The Decree concerns only the minorities defined under the Treaty of Lausanne, but this first important step gives hope for other religious groups as well.

19. In making this landmark decision, P.M. Erdoğan said: “This is not about doing a favor; this is about rectifying an injustice.” Clearly, P.M. Erdoğan understands the import of this decision of the Government as the move will enable him to appear in European capitals with renewed credibility and confidence in his reformist leadership role in Turkey.

20. The announcement was greeted by the many concerned organizations with muted enthusiasm but also with a certain degree of skepticism. Indeed, most, if not all, organizations and persons who have lost their properties over many decades of systematic harassment and confiscation maintain grave doubts as to the real intentions of the Government of Turkey, the number of properties covered by the Decree that will, in fact, be returned, the time allowed for the submission of documents, and bureaucratic procedures that may impede the implementation of the Decree. However, the Order of St. Andrew, while sharing this skepticism to a great extent, is also feeling a guarded optimism, wishing and expecting that the Government of Turkey will fully implement the Decree and bold Prime Ministerial announcement with an effective plan of action without bureaucratic procrastination. The future will show if this optimism was justified.

D. Conclusions and Recommendations

21. We hope that, in this paper, we have clearly demonstrated a long history of human rights violations in Turkey; these concern mostly freedom of religion and protection of the human rights of its minorities. Some of the better-known cases have been highlighted above.

22. We are also cognizant of, and thankful for, decisive moves on the part of the current Government of Turkey to rectify problem areas with initiatives that are aimed at breaking the bureaucratic status quo and the hold on public life by a militaristic elite and at adopting measures exemplifying confidence in the Turkish and Islamic culture. We hope and expect that the constitutional amendments passed by a wide majority on September 12, 2010 will lead to concrete democratic gains and openness to the needs of the common citizen and, hence, to the strengthening of individual rights of citizens of all faiths and ethnic origin within Turkey.

23. While waiting for such reforms to be translated into law but also into everyday practice, we respectfully submit that OSCE should immediately impress on the Government of Turkey the need to fully comply with the principles of OSCE, of which Turkey is a member, namely, inter alia, to:

– Fully adhere to the principles on the rights of expression, assembly and association, dissent, and religious faith and practice of all citizens without discrimination.

– Allow full legal status for Turkey’s religious minorities by making all the necessary legal changes in line with religious freedom and the other human rights guarantees found in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which Turkey has ratified.

– Defend and protect the health, safety, integrity, free movement, and religious activity, in all its manifestations, of all religious leaders, including the Ecumenical Patriarch.

– Establish a climate of respect, tolerance, and legitimate assistance toward the free functioning of ethnic and religious minorities and their various institutions.

– Fully implement the provisional Article 7 of the 2008 Law on Foundations. Cease all property confiscations.

– Implement fully and effectively the recent Government Decree on the return of confiscated properties or providing compensation, without restrictions, convoluted interpretations, or dilatory bureaucratic tactics. Τo take further steps to address, specifically, the issues of those seized (“mazbut”) non–Muslim Foundations and churches, with their assets, that have been usurped by the so–called “Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate.”

24. Continued and accelerated movement toward reform and the required changes in law will provide Turkey a clear path toward greater freedom for all its citizens, including its minorities, as P.M. Erdoğan clearly stated himself, when he said on the 28th of August 2011:

“Like everyone else, we also do know about the injustices that various religious groups have been subjected to because of their differences…….The times when a citizen of ours would be oppressed due to his religious, ethnic origin or different way of life are over.”

We welcome the Prime Minister’s recent decisive and bold moves and wish him success as he tries to fully implement his good intentions by translating them into law and everyday practice.


1. The document was issued in Strasbourg, 15 March 2010, Opinion no. 535/2009, CDL-AD (2010) 005 Or. Engl.

 

2. U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), Annual Report, May 2011 (p.326).

3. The 2011 Annual Report to Congress of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), sent also to the White House and the State Department, stating that it will keep Turkey on its “Watch List” as one of the most serious offenders of freedom of religion towards non-Muslim communities.

4. This is the official name for the Patriarchate used by the Government of Turkey, referring to its origins in the Roman Empire.

Ecumenical Patriarchate 2011

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

Religious Freedom: The Ecumenical Patriarchate in Istanbul
 



 

Freedom of Thought, Conscience, Religion or Belief:

The Problems of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Istanbul 

The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)

2011 Human Dimension Implementation Meeting

Warsaw, Poland

Working Session 2: 27 September 2011; a.m.

Presented by Archon Ekdikos Theofanis Economidis

Introduction

1. We are present, again this year, at the 2011 OSCE Human Dimension Implementation Meeting, to represent the Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle, which is a United States-based organization of Orthodox Christian laymen, whose mission is to defend the rights and prerogatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and to preserve its important role in the spiritual live of Orthodox Christians and of persons of faith in the world. Our members can be found in all walks of life, including the U. S. Congress, executive government, the professions, business, and the arts. The Order of St. Andrew has participated at OSCE Meetings like the present one a number of years and will continue to do so as long as our intervention is needed.

2. We are pleased to acknowledge a number of important steps, including one on properties of non–Muslim Foundations that the current Government of Turkey has been taking over the past year since the last OSCE-Human Dimension Meeting in this city. We refer specifically to one step taken just one month ago, to correct egregious past injustices and discriminatory practices that have, over long years, injured the Ecumenical Patriarchate’s health and well being and presented serious obstacles to its normal functioning in its spiritual role in the world.

3. This is not to say that the Order of St. Andrew is fully satisfied on all accounts and the current situation, even after the announced corrective measures are implemented, will be desirable from our point of view and, even more importantly, from the perspective of human rights standards, such as the Human Rights Convention, and standards for the freedom of religion of international bodies namely, the European Union,  which Turkey is aspiring to join as a full member, the United States, and the United Nations. Just as we are cognizant and thankful for encouraging developments, to which we are prepared to assign full credit, we will insist on faithful implementation of good intentions and full compliance with international law and the principles of OSCE of which Turkey is a member.

The process for the election of a new Ecumenical Patriarch

4. There has been some progress in the process of electing a new Ecumenical Patriarch. The requirement of the Government of Turkey, that the candidate to the patriarchal throne and his electors be Turkish citizens at the time of election, combined with the dwindling numbers of candidates who fulfill this requirement, has been a dire threat to the very existence of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Even before last year’s OSCE-ODHIR review conference, we had noted that, in recent rulings, electors of the world-wide Patriarchal Synod, Metropolitans from geographic areas that fall within the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, have been allowed to apply for Turkish citizenship. The latest information, as of this writing, is that 26 Metropolitans have applied for Turkish citizenship, 18 have been approved, and the remaining 8 are pending. We hope the approval process will continue apace and all eligible applicants will be approved. This recent ruling, once fully implemented, will add a considerable number of Orthodox prelates to the small pool of indigenous electors for the election of a new Ecumenical Patriarch.

5. While recognizing the positive steps taken for accommodation, we feel compelled to ask why any restrictions at all should apply and any interference be exerted to the internal proceedings of the Ecumenical Patriarchate or of any religious group for that matter, especially when the office in question is one of spiritual relevance and authority. The May 2011 Report of USCIRF stated its reservations in this manner:

these ad hoc accommodations – while helpful –fail to ensure the level of institutional integrity and independence in intra-religious decisions contemplated by international human rights standards.”

The “Ecumenical” title

6. The title “Ecumenical,” that the entire world uses in addressing and referring to His All-Holiness, the Patriarch of Constantinople, is an issue of paramount importance to the Order of St. Andrew and to the entire world. The term means that the See of Constantinople pertains to the entire “inhabited world.” We repeat here briefly the points we made last year: (a) the See was founded by the Apostle Andrew, the first-called Apostle of Jesus, in 37 A.D., in the town of Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople, and present-day Istanbul; (b) its position and prestige was formally elevated in the year 451 A. D., at the Fourth Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church; (c) the See has served, over the centuries, as the religious center for Orthodox Christians up to this day; (d) the term “Ecumenical Patriarchate” dates from the sixth century A.D. and reflects the stature in which the Bishop of Constantinople was held by the rest of Christendom. After Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and in succeeding centuries, the Ecumenical Patriarchate continued its existence in Istanbul, exercising its spiritual ministry over world-wide Orthodoxy.

7. A large number of events can be cited to demonstrate that the “Ecumenical” title of the Patriarch has always and is actually accepted and routinely used by the Orthodox churches of the entire Christian world. A few facts can be cited to illustrate the point:   

                * A number of Popes of Rome, including the current occupant of the See of Rome, Pope Benedict XVI, have paid official visits to the Ecumenical Patriarchate;

* The Ecumenical Patriarch has exercised his recognized prerogatives as “primus inter pares,” (first among equals) by convening a number of synaxes (gatherings just short of the status of a synod). The most recent synaxis was held in 2008; 

* During visits by Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Rowen D. Williams, the Archbishop repeatedly referred to His All Holiness the Patriarch as the Ecumenical Patriarch.

* The visit to the Ecumenical Patriarchate by the current Patriarch Kyrill of Moscow and All Russia, July 4-6, 2009, offers clear testimony of this recognition.

8. The matter of the title “Ecumenical” has also been the subject of deliberation by the Venice Commission. At its 82nd Plenary Session, in Venice, 12-13 March 2010, the Commission expressed a formal opinion,  (1) which was affirmed in an opinion issued in July 2011, stating, among other things: 

“99. The Turkish authorities are under a clear obligation under Article 9 of the ECHR not to obstruct or in any way hinder the Patriarchate from using this title. However, it cannot be inferred from the ECHR that the Turkish authorities are obliged themselves to actively use this title when referring to the Patriarchate, nor to formally recognise it. If the authorities do not want to use the title, they are formally free under the ECHR not to do so, as long as they do not obstruct the use of it by others.

100.  However, taking into account the fact that the word “Ecumenical” forms part of the title of the Patriarchate and has done so since the 6th century, and that this title is widely recognised and used globally, the Venice Commission fails to see any reason, factual or legal, for the authorities not to address the Ecumenical Patriarchate by its historical and generally recognised title.”

9. We regret to report to this conference that recognition of “Ecumenical,” as a legitimate and historical title, is still denied to the Patriarch of Constantinople by the Government of Turkey, which continues to view him as the Bishop of a flock of 2,500 Greek Orthodox faithful. It must be said that the Government of Turkey, on many occasions, including a recent one, when P.M. Erdoğan visited Athens, in May 2010, stated that it has no issue with the title “ecumenical.” However, in a conference organized in November 2010 by the Order of St. Andrew in Brussels, the Minister for European Affairs of Turkey stated that “the government would not recognize the Patriarch’s ecumenical status.” We feel that this attitude and denial of a historic and legitimate title is unacceptable; it diminishes the stature of the Ecumenical Patriarch, defies history, contradicts universal Christian practice, and works against Turkey’s ambitions to present itself as a reformed and modern country. 

Denial of Legal Personality

10. Lack of recognition of its legal identity has been, for many years, and continues to be to this day, an instrument of deliberate attrition on the part of the Government of Turkey and a major impediment to the functioning of the Ecumenical Patriarchate as a normal institution in Turkish society, as it has also been the case for all other religious bodies in Turkey, hampering their normal existence and operations in every-day life. The many consequences of this deprivation include the inability to sue in court for redress of grievances and a “legal inability” to own property. The denial of legal personality to religious institutions has been condemned widely, most notably by the European Commission for Democracy Through Law, also known as the Venice Commission, which reiterated this condemnation as late as in July 2011, in an opinion issued at the request of the Ministry of Justice of the Government of Turkey.

11. The occasion of official return of the Orphanage of Büyükada to the Ecumenical Patriarchate, in late November 2010, was thought to provide a de facto legal recognition to the institution of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, since the deed was registered in the name of “Rum Patrikhanesi”(2). This hope was dashed when, in January 2011, Deputy Prime Minister Bülent Arinc stated publically that “the institution represented by Greek Orthodox Patriarch Bartholomew does not have a legal personality under current Turkish law.” He further stated that the Government of Turkey was “seeking to find an arrangement that recognizes the existence of the patriarchate but does not offer a legal personality to it, in line with the [1923] Lausanne Treaty and our laws.” So this issue remains largely unresolved.

Restriction on Free Religious Education

12. The Theological School at Halki (Heybeliada) was closed in 1971, thus seriously depriving the Ecumenical Patriarchate of its ability to educate its clergy and lay theologians and to be, by its ecumenical role, a center of Orthodox learning, research, and scholarship. Over the past few decades, the opening of Halki has become a thorny and recalcitrant issue over which much diplomatic energy has been expended. In addition, The Ecumenical Patriarchate has severe visa restrictions placed by the Turkish government on students, priests and other staff who wish to visit it in order to study and serve there. The Ecumenical Patriarchate is not permitted to have its own printing facility, publish religious journals, treatises and books; a serious hindrance to its theological and pastoral function.

13. The references, entreaties, requests and exhortations toward the opening of this School have been legion over the years, as was narrated in much detail in our last year’s presentation. Many authoritative and weighty voices, including those made by Presidents of the U.S., high officials of the European Union, and many organizations, including the Order of St. Andrew, have lined up in one direction, namely toward convincing the Government of Turkey that, in addition to serving the needs of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the opening of Halki would also serve the interests of Turkey, especially at this juncture of trying to join the E.U.; but to no avail, to this minute — we regret to say. In addition to those quoted in last year’s presentation, we mention here, only briefly, the following recent voices of support:

The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), in its 2010 Annual Report, gave a critical assessment on the status of religious freedom in Turkey and, specifically on the continuing closure of the Theological School of Halki. We quote: “Freedom of religion and expression lead to a strong and vibrant civil society that only strengthens the state, which is why steps like reopening Halki Seminary will send such an important signal inside Turkey and beyond.”

In the most recent USCIRF Report (May 2011), the commission states:

“In 1971, the government‘s nationalization of higher education institutions included the Greek Orthodox Theological School of Halki on the island of Heybeli, thereby depriving the Greek Orthodox community of its only educational institution for its religious leadership in Turkey. Furthermore, in November 1998, the school‘s Board of Trustees was dismissed by the General Authority for Public Institutions. The Halki seminary remains closed. USCIRF was told by various Turkish officials in February 2011 that they are actively exploring with the Patriarchate the reopening of the Halki seminary. The USCIRF delegation also discussed with the Ecumenical Patriarch the potential benefits of forming a technical committee, comprised of representatives from the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Turkish government, to collectively review all details relevant to an expeditious reopening of the Halki seminary.”

Guido Westerwelle, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Germany, in a trip to Turkey, visited the Halki School, on 2 July 2011, and made pointed remarks, reported in the press as follows:

“My visit here is very important to me. The School of Halki is a place for civilization and, therefore, an inseparable part of European civilization. I wish my presence here would give courage and hope and would exemplify my support for the prospect of the reopening of the School.”

On July 15-18 of this year, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton visited Greece and Turkey. While in Turkey, she paid a visit to His All Holiness Bartholomew I at the Ecumenical Patriarchate and in her  public remarks with Turkish Foreign Minister Davutoglou she said:

“I hope that sometime soon we can see the reopening of the Halki Seminary that highlights Turkey‘s strength on democracy and its leadership in a changing world.” 

14. It would not be an exaggeration to state that the lack of any progress in the matter despite repeated efforts and entreaties has become the source of frustration to the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the U.S. Government, the E.U., the U.S., and countless organizations of the world in the political, cultural, and religious arena, and certainly to the Order of St. Andrew. It is implausible for us to accept that a state like Turkey with its enormous size and strength, flourishing economy, and influence on the global scene finds it difficult to find a suitable way to allow the reopening of a School of Theology that is essential to the Christian community and a fundamental right by all civilized standards. Recent steps toward decisive reforms may yet afford a basis for hope that the Government of Turkey will look, seriously this time, into the resolution of this problem without further delay.

Property Confiscations

15. Property confiscations have been among the top grievances of Patriarchal institutions and other civil bodies of the Greek Orthodox minority associated with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, to a great extent because it deprived them of means of sustenance and growth. The Order of St. Andrew will have the opportunity to elaborate on this critical issue in a companion paper to be presented at the session of this Meeting that is devoted to minority rights.

16. In this paper, we wish to mention, with deep satisfaction, the return to the Ecumenical Patriarchate of the Orphanage on the island of Prinkipos (Büyükada), following much litigation, including, at the end, before the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). The Ecumenical Patriarchate obtained a favorable ruling on 7 July 2008, followed by an additional ruling, on June 15, 2010, that ordered the Government of Turkey to return the Orphanage to the Ecumenical Patriarchate. This order was implemented, in late November 2010, through a deed in the name of “Rum Patrikhanesi” (see footnote 1). 

17. Just as this paper was being drafted, a very important step, was made, on Sunday, 28-August-2011, by means of a Decree, announced at a meeting of P.M. Erdoğan with representatives of religious minorities that the Government of Turkey has decided (by adding a new transitional article, no 11, to the 2008 Foundation Law), to return properties confiscated from religious minorities’ foundations since 1936 and pay fair compensation for seized assets that have since been sold by the Turkish state to third parties. Although those who have lost their properties maintain serious doubts, shared to a large extent by the Order of St. Andrew, as to the real intentions of the Government of Turkey, the number of properties that will, in fact, be returned, the timing and procedures of submission of needed documentation, and other details, the move must be recognized as a radical break with a long-standing policy, opening new ground and offering important possibilities for better relations between the Government of Turkey and religious minorities. This initiative will enable P.M. Erdoğan to appear in European capitals with renewed credibility and confidence in his leadership role in Turkey; the Order of St. Andrew, assuming that the political will to fully implement the Decree is there, wishes him complete success.

Liturgy at the Soumela Monastery

18. On the positive side, for the second year in a row, following 88 years of closure, the Ecumenical Patriarch was given permission to officiate liturgy on August 15th, the day of the Dormition of the Theotokos, at the historic monastery of Soumela, near Trabzon on the Black Sea.(3) A large contingent of visitors was also granted permission to attend including Archbishop Demetrios of America, a bishop representing Patriarch Kyrill of Moscow and all Russia, laymen from Greece, Russia, Turkey, Georgia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, the United States, Australia, and other countries as well as many clerics – each participant had to be pre-approved by the Turkish authorities. The event prompted the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew to express his gratitude to the Government of Turkey, to which we join him in expressing similar sentiment. However, we cannot refrain from raising an uncomfortable question: why should the granted permission be recognized as an earth-shaking event of reform when for most civilized persons and countries, it should be a normal, almost routine expression of religious faith, especially when taking place at a religious site that has been used for such religious rites for centuries? As columnist Orhan Kemal Cengiz of the Turkish newspaper Zaman put it (16-Aug-11):

“For someone in a concentration camp, for example, anything that resembles ordinary life would feel like a great privilege. ………The prior conditions of minority groups, including the situation of the Patriarchate were so bad, that these new conditions would appear as a huge improvement for everyone.”

19. We look forward to the day when the practice of religious faith and the use of religious shrines, which are abundant in today’s Turkey because Christianity thrived in Asia Minor for almost two millennia, will be viewed as a normal expression of faith and will be a daily event requiring no official permit whatsoever. We hope that the Government of Turkey, in its current reformist mind, will decide to allow the use of religious shrines of all faiths by their rightful owners completely unimpeded and free of direct or indirect interference by state or para-statal organizations.

Conclusions and Recommendations

20. The criticisms of the status of religious freedom and human rights contained in this paper are based on the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the Vienna and Copenhagen Concluding Documents. They represent the views of the Order of St. Andrew the Apostle on the plight of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the need for improvement by the Government of Turkey, but also reflect the hope for the life ahead. The OSCE participating states have strongly affirmed Religious freedom, as a fundamental human right, is a mainstay of the OSCE principles and all its members are expected to uphold it. We claim that these rights are inherent to the Ecumenical Patriarchate and must be respected and defended by the public authorities of Turkey not only for the sake of the Ecumenical Patriarchate itself but also for other Christian denominations and other faiths in the country as well.

21. Our report takes a dual tack. On one hand it highlights the Government of Turkey’s failures to live up to these principles, notwithstanding the fact that it is a signatory to the OSCE. On the other hand, it welcomes with hope and optimism recent actions and announcements by the government and is watching to see actual implementation and real change in government thinking and action.

22. Particularly for the Ecumenical Patriarchate, we wish to emphasize that the Government of Turkey must recognize its paramount role as a bridge between Christians and Muslims and as a living testament to their peaceful coexistence, difficult as this coexistence may have been at times. We are respectfully submitting our request that this body should reaffirm its strong commitment to the preservation of the Ecumenical Patriarchate as well as to the freedom of religious expression of all religious communities in Turkey. We recognize the drastic change of the political and social climate in Turkey that is currently taking place and the readiness of the Government of Turkey to adhere, observe, and apply the principles of OSCE through bold reforms. Nevertheless, in view of past experience, we ask that OSCE and its Committees vigorously approach the Government of Turkey and try to persuade it of the need to faithfully adhere to the above principles and to follow up good intentions with concrete actions. Specifically, the Government of Turkey must:

Continue the reforms in connection with the election of a new Ecumenical Patriarch with the goal of completely withdrawing from any interference with the Ecumenical Patriarchate’s internal procedures.

Officially allow the use of the title “Ecumenical” and cease and desist from any interference with its use; any penalties related to its use need to be deleted from existing law, regulation, or practice.

Accord recognition of the Ecumenical Patriarchate and other religious denominations and faiths in Turkey as legal entities with all attributes, rights, and prerogatives attendant to their legal personality, including the right to own, build, repair, and acquire property.

Allow the opening and normal operation of the Theological School in Halki and remove all impediments to its effective functioning as a center of theological education, research and scholarship.

Follow up with deeds the Government Decree to return the seized (mazbut) properties of non-Muslim Foundations and churches to their legitimate owners, or provide reasonable and fair compensation, according to the recent courageous decision, via a Decree, of the Government of Turkey, as announced by P.M. Erdoğan on 28-August-2011.

23. Introducing fuller reforms in the area of religious freedom, and implementing them with concrete actions, without arbitrary or distorted interpretation, bureaucratic obfuscation, and dilatory tactics, will provide strong proof that Turkey is ready, willing, and able to establish fair conditions and unobstructed justice for all its citizens but also to strengthen its credibility among nations in the international arena and become a paradigm for emulation in the entire world. We close with the words of Mr. Erdoğan at the aforementioned dinner (iftar), on the 28th of August 2011, as reported by the semiofficial Anatolian News Agency:

 “Like everyone else, we also do know about the injustices that different religious groups have been subjected to because of their differences, …Times that a citizen of ours would be oppressed due to his religion, ethnic origin or different way of life are over.” 

We hope that the Prime Minister means what he says and that we will soon see real action on his announcement and Government Decree.


1. The document was issued in Strasbourg, 15 March 2010, Opinion no. 535/2009, CDL-AD (2010)005 Or. Engl.

 2. This is the official name for the Patriarchate used by the Government of Turkey, referring to its origins in the Roman Empire.

3. The historic Monastery of Panagia Soumela in Trabzon stands at the foot of a cliff — partially constructed in the rock — facing the Altindere Valley in the Macka region of Trabzon Province, Turkey. The monastery was founded in the year 386 AD during the reign of the Emperor Theodosius the Great. It gained wide prominence and imperial protection in the 13th-14th centuries. Over the centuries, the monastery fell into ruin several times, was restored by various Emperors and seized by the Russian Empire during the occupation of Trabzon in the years 1916-1918. The site was destroyed by the Neo-Turks in 1922, abandoned the following year during the forced exchange of populations after the Treaty of Lausanne, and finally converted into a museum and tourist attraction.


Germany’s Reparation Debts to Greece

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

Germany’s Reparation Debts to Greece

By Karl Heinz Roth


Following the liberation of Greece from the German occupying forces, economists and experts from the National Bank of Greece began to take stock of the economic effects of the German occupation. They addressed themselves to the participants of an inter-allied conference on reparations held in Paris in late 1945 and early 1946. On 14 January 1946, the conference issued an agreement on reparations and set up an Inter-Alled Reparations Agency (IARA), charged with implementing the agreement.[1] Two expert reports were particularly relevant to the negotiations over reparations owed to Greece.[2] A. Angelopoulos estimated that the sum withdrawn from the Greek national economy in order to pay for the costs of the occupation amounted to 4,050 billion US dollars ($). He estimated the damage done to the overall economy to amount to 3,172 billion $, thus arriving at a total of 7,222 billion $, on the basis of the US dollar’s 1938 purchasing power. A. Sborounis provided an alternative estimate, arriving at an overall sum of 12 billion $, also in the US dollar’s 1938 purchasing power. The conference eventually agreed on a total sum of 7,1 billion $ in the purchasing power of 1938; this sum included the costs of the occupation, among them the occupation bond raised in 1942 and all claims by private aggrieved parties. Far higher sums were calculated in some subsequent – and reliable – estimates.[3] This, however, is irrelevant to the issue at hand, since the agreement on reparations, which was ratified in all due form and has not been annulled to this day, and from which it emerged that about 3.5 % of all reparations to be paid by Germany were to be paid to Greece,[4] provides a solid basis for further considerations, one that is entirely in accordance with international law.  Since the purchasing power of the US dollar  has decreased by a factor of 15 (inflator) between 1938 and 2010, Greece’s reparation claims as established by the Paris Agreement amount to 106,5 billion $ today (2010).


In the London Debt Agreement of February 1953, the reparation claims established seven years earlier and addressed to the West German occupation zones and the later Federal Republic of Germany were suspended until the signing of a peace agreement with Germany. The main reason for this was that the USA and Britain now prioritised the servicing of Germany’s pre-war debt to private creditors over the reparation claims resulting from the war.[5] This meant that, on the level of international law, the Greek government’s hands were tied. In order to continue exerting pressure on the Federal Republic of Germany, the Greek government now linked the issue of reparations to the search for German war criminals and the reparation claims of their victims. Representatives of the Greek government made repeated visits to Bonn; demonstrably, such visits occurred especially frequently in 1956.[6] One year later, the Greek government became more insistent, having arrested a war criminal who had entered Greek territory, the former director of the Administrative and Economic Division of the Wehrmacht Commander for Thessaloniki and the Aegean, Max Merten. Two years later, an Athens military tribunal sentenced Merten to 25 years in prison; he was however extradited to the Federal Republic of Germany several months later.[7] The government of the Federal Republic rewarded Prime Minister Konstantin Karamanlis’ decsision by including Greece in a series of general inter-state agreements by which compensation was provided to those persecuted for racial, religious and ideological reasons in the former occupied territories of the Western hemisphere; this gesture of good will was also intended to bolster West Germany’s claim to sole representation against East German efforts to address the issue of reparations.[8] Following extended negotiations, the Greek government was granted, in March of 1960, a one-off payment of 115 million DM. In a note in the minutes of the agreement, the Greek government stated that Greece’s suspended reparation claims were not rendered void by this agreement.[9]


When East Germany was annexed, the prospect of a peace agreement gave new urgency to the issue of reparations. But those who hoped this situation would yield a binding agreement were soon disappointed. The agreement ratified by the four Allied powers and the two German states on the eve of German unification doubtless amounted to a peace agreement, but it entirely failed to mention the issue of reparations.[10] Consequently, we must assume, until the opposite is proven (e.g. by the publication of additional clauses hitherto kept secret), that the USA, Britain and France have now tacitly renounced their claims to reparations from West Germany, much as the Soviet Union renounced its claims, in all due form, in August of 1953. This fait accompli did not, however, affect the smaller victors of the Second World War, such as Greece. While the CSCE Act later involved these nations seconding the principles agreed on in the Two Plus Four Agreement, one cannot deduce from this an implicit renunciation of the reparation claims that were established, in accordance with international law, in the 1946 Paris Agreement. By implication, the government of the Federal Republic of Germany cannot legitimately consider these claims to have been renounced. On the contrary, the governments affected remain free to assert their still unsatisfied reparation claims against Germany.


The case of the former occupying powers Italy and Bulgaria is different. When Nazi Germany’s former coalition partners Italy, Bulgaria, Rumania and Finland signed a peace agreement with the Allied forces in February of 1947, they were made to pay reparations to the governments of the countries they had helped invade and/or occupy; in return, they were granted renewed recognition of their state sovereignty.[11] In accordance with this agreement, Greece received from Italy the sum of 105 million $, calculated on the basis of the dollar’s purchasing power in 1938; Greece also received 45 million $ from Bulgaria. Expressed in today’s purchasing power (2010), these sums amount to 1,575 billion $ and 675 billion $, respectively – relatively moderate sums. The sums were relatively low because the new protecting powers of the former „Axis“ partners – the USA and the USSR – responded to the emergence of the Cold War frontline by opting for conservative estimates of the reparations to be paid by Italy, Bulgaria, Rumania and Finland. This reparations agreement excluded those with the greatest burden of guilt, the Germans. Germany’s transfer payments had been established in the Paris Agreement on Reparations, and the claim to these payments continued to be asserted until their suspension in the London Debt Agreement.


German Reparation Payments to Greece – A Largely Unsettled Debt[12]


Consequently, the Germans – represented by the Western occupation zones and later by the Federal Republic of Germany – were far from getting away scot-free. The available US sources show that the Reparations Agency established in February of 1946 did not remain idle. It confiscated German foreign assets and repeatedly dismantled physical assets in order to ensure that Germany serviced its debt to the 18 recipients of reparation payments in the Western hemisphere.[13] But because it did not resort to expenseless withdrawals from the economic output of the Western occupation zones, the sums obtained were never as high as the transfer payments the Soviet Military Administration obtained from the Soviet Occupation Zone, and later the German Democratic Republic, in order to satisfy the reparation claims of the Soviet Union and Poland. West German reparation payments amounted to about 4.8 billion $, or only about two fifths of the payments from East Germany.[14] Assuming that about 3.5 % of this sum were transferred to Greece, we arrive at the sum of 168 million $, in the dollar’s 1948 purchasing power. Taking into account the inflator (9.23), the sum of the reparations paid at the time amounts to 1,551 billion $, in round terms and in today’s value.


In 1960, the Federal Republic of Germany effected its global payment of 115 million DM. Although this payment was intended purely as compensation for those who had been persecuted for racial, religious and ideological reasons under the German occupation, while the victims of massacres were excluded, we should not deny that this payment was a reparations payment, if only because of the inter-state character of the transaction. This is all the true as the 1946 Paris Agreement on Reparations explicitly included all individual compensation payments. Taking into account the exchange rate of the time, we arrive at the result that an additional 27,578 million $ were transferred to Greece in 1960. Since the inflator for the time period 1960–2010 is 7.35, this sum amounted to 202.7 million $, in round terms and in today’s purchasing power.


Finally, in 2003, a second group-specific compensation payment was effected by Germany’s federal foundation „Remembrance, Responsibility and Future“; the former forced labourers of Greece were the beneficiaries of this payment. Since our reference point, the 1946 Reparations Agreement, did not yet distinguish between state reparations and individual payments effected on the basis of civil law,[15] we should not exclude these payments either. The former forced labourers of Greece received 20 million euros; on the basis of the 2003 exchange rate, this sum amounted to 22.6 million $, in round terms. The inflator for the time period 2003–2010 (1.19) should also be taken into account; the sum transferred in 2003 then amounts to about 26.9 million $, in today’s purchasing power.


Adding together these partial amounts on the basis of the dollar’s purchasing power in 2010, we arrive at the intermediate sum of 1.781 billion $, in round terms. This sum needs to be substracted from the total sum established in 1946 (106.5 billion $ in the purchasing power of 2010). Taking into account the purchasing power situation of 2010, we arrive at the sum of 104,719 billion $ or – assuming an exchange rate between the $ and the euro of 0.754 – 78,958 billion euros.



Who Will Foot the Bill?


The overwhelming majority of Germans will surely consider the result of this calculation scandalous and reject it with a mixture of anger and resentment – assuming that the wall of silence surrounding the issue is overcome. We hope that this will indeed occur and need therefore to consider the likely comments and counter-arguments.


First, we wish to reject the argument that the Paris Agreement is „yesterday’s news“ because of the 65 years that have elapsed since its ratification, notwithstanding the fact that it was never rescinded on the basis of international law. For instance, Germany’s foreign debt to private creditors, which extended back to the year 1924, continued to be serviced until it had been fully cleared in the 1980s, on the basis of the London Debt Agreement. Why should the standards commonly applied to international non-state debtor-creditor relations not be applied to reparation debts established on the basis of international law?


Second, we wish to point out that our calculations have consistently been based on minimum assumptions and minimum figures. In converting the relevant sums, we have used a price index that is based exclusively on the development of consumer prices and takes account of changes in purchasing power by introducing an inflator into the calculation. But since the reparations payments are intended as compensation not just for pillaged goods and services but also for withheld wages and incomes, we ought in principle to also have considered the wage index or the social product index, in order then to calculate a combined mean value.[16] Had we proceeded in this manner, we would have arrived at a considerably higher sum. Moreover, we have refrained from calculating the interest on the Greek claims established in 1946. Assuming the internationally current interest rate of 4 %, we would have arrived at a sum of 284 million $ in interest for the year 1946; the sum increases to 4.26 billion $ by 2010, thus considerably augmenting the total sum due. The reason we have refrained from taking interest into account is that, despite the moratorium on reparations being lifted by the 1990 Two Plus Four Agreement, the Greek government has neglected to formally advance its claims as established in 1946. Even if the Greek government were to change its policy on this issue (as we hope it will), it will hardly be in a position to demand interest payments. It can only be a question of exacting the unpaid reparation payments in today’s purchasing power, or of prompting the Federal Republic of Germany to finally clear its reparation debt.


A third line of argument will invoke populist feelings of resentment: are German pensioners, already the victims of old-age poverty, now to expiate the crimes committed by the Wehrmacht in Greece? In responding to his line of argument, we should refer back to the historical facts. Aside from the Reichsbank, the Reich treasury and the trade associations, it was mainly large firms who organised and profited from the pillage of Greece, via the managers they dispatched, as their delegates, to Nazi Germany’s economic task forces. The majority of these firms still exist today and continue to play the Greek card: ThyssenKrupp (formerly Fried. Krupp AG), the tobacco industry,  Rheinmetall, the Siemens corporation, the leading construction companies (the former „Einsatzfirmen“ of the Organisation Todt), the major banks (first and foremost Deutsche Bank AG) and numerous other firms easily identified on the basis of written documents. They should be made to foot the bill, just like the German Bundesbank, the legal successor of the Reichsbank, and the successors of the DEGRIGES commercial monopoly (the Federal Association of German Industries, Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie, and the Federation of German Wholesale, Foreign Trade and Services, Bundesvereinigung des Groß- und Außenhandels). The present situation represents a congenial occasion for a generous payment to Greece, funded from the capital assets of those with a historical responsibility to the country. In other words, there is no need to burden the average tax payer.


The sum to be mobilised is equivalent to the volume of the Papandreou government’s second austerity programme. Even if one or two billion euros were diverted for the purpose of compensating the descendants of the victims of massacres, such a payment would provide considerable relief to the Greek national economy. Its protagonists could implement an anti-cyclical reconstruction programme geared especially to the needs of ordinary people, thereby providing a Europe-wide impulse for the direct democratic self-administration of the economy.


Calculation of Greek Reparation Claims

10 August 2011



I. 7.1 billion USD, based on the dollar’s purchasing power in 1938 (Paris Agreement on Reparations, January 1946)


II. Conversion factor to the dollar’s purchasing power in 2010 = 15 (CPI)


Amount 2010 = 106. 5 billion USD


III.  Interest p.a. = 4 %, to be calculated for the years 1946–2010  =  64 years

1946 = 284 million USD – increases to 4.26 billion USD by 2010


This interest is not taken account of, because the Greek government has largely failed to insist on payment of reparations. Accordingly, compound interest is also disregarded.


IV. Sums to be substratced (reparation and compensation payments already effected):


1) Probable West German reparation payments to Greece until the early 1950s:


Greek share of total reparations due to signatory states in 1945 = 3.525 %

Funds from reparation categories A (2.7 %) and B (4.35 %) = ca. 3.5 %


Total amount of direct and indirect reparation payments effected by West Germany according to Jörg Fisch = 4.8 billion USD


Greek share = 168 million USD

Amount in today’s purchasing power (inflator between 1948 and 2010 = 9.23) =

1,550,640,000 $ =  1,551 billion $ in round terms


2) 1960: 115 million DM lump-sum payment (compensation paid to those persecuted for racial and ideological reasons)


Exchange rate between the DM and the USD in 1960 = 4.17

Sum in USD =  27,578 million USD

Inflator for the period 1960–2010  =  7.35

In today’s purchasing power, the sum therefore amounts to 202,698,300 =  202.7 million $ in round terms.


3) 2003: 20 million euros worth of compensation payments to former Greek forced labourers


Exchange rate between the dollar and the euro in 2003 = 0.885 = 22.59 million USD in round terms

Inflator between 2003 and 2010 = 1.19

In today’s purchasing power (2010), the sum therefore amounts to 26,882,000 $ = 26.9 million $ in round terms.


Total amount of reparation and compensation payments already effected, in today’s purchasing power =  1,780,600,000 = 1,781 billion $ in round terms


Amount of reparations still due in 2010 = 104, 719 billion $


Assuming the exchange rate between the USD and the euro = 0.754, we arrive at the sum of


78,958 billion euros (in round terms)










[1] The Reparations Agreement and the most important of the Greek laws that were passed subsequently have been documented (in English and German) in: Bundesministerium der Justiz (ed.), Deutsches Vermögen im Ausland. Internationale Vereinbarungen und ausländische Gesetzgebung, Köln, n.d. (1951), pp. 10 ff., 169 ff.

[2] On this and what follows, cf. Athanassios  Kalafatis, Die wirtschaftliche Katastrophe Griechenlands und die rechtlichen Ansprüche auf Reparation, in: Schwarzbuch der Besatzung, Red. Manolis Glessos, second expanded and corrected edition, Athens 2006 (in Greek and German), pp. 12–22.

[3] Cf. Kalafatis, Die Wirtschaftliche Katastrophe Griechenlands, pp. 20 f.

[4] A distinction was drawn between two categories of reparations: the main category “Be” (withdrawals from German foreign assets, dismantlement of physical assets and the handover of the commercial fleet) and the supplementary category “A”. Greece was accorded 4.35 % of the reparations from the main category “Be” and 2.7 % of the reparations from the supplementary category “A”. Since we do not know how the payments actually effected were divided between these two categories, we have based our calculations (see below) on the mean value 3.525 %, rounded up to 3.5 %.

[5] On this and what follows, cf. Christoph Buchheim, Das Londoner Schuldenabkommen, in: Ludolf Herbst (ed.), Westdeutschland 1945–1955. Unterwerfung, Kontrolle, Integration, Munich 1986, pp. 219-229; Ursula Rambeck-Jaschinski, Das Londoner Schuldenabkommen. Die Regelung der deutschen Auslandsschulden nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, Munich 2005.

[6] On this and what follows, cf. the survey of the relevant Greek scholarly literature in: Wolfgang Breyer, Max Merten – ein Militärbeamter der deutschen Wehrmacht im Spannungsfeld zwischen Legende und Wahrheit, doctoral dissertation, University of Mannheim 2003 (unpublished), pp. 106 ff.; on West Germany’s delay tactics, see Hagen Fleischer, „Endlösung“ der Kriegsverbrecherfrage. Die verhinderte Ahndung deutscher Kriegsverbrechen in Griechenland, in: Norbert Frei (ed.), Transnationale Vergangenheitspolitik. Der Umgang mit deutschen Kriegsverbrechern in Europa nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, Göttingen 2006, pp. 464–535.

[7] On the trial and the background of Merten’s extradition, cf. Breyer, Max Merten, pp. 115 ff., 126 ff.

[8] GDR diplomats offered to engage in bilateral negotiations on compensation with several Western and Southern European countries in return for diplomatic recognition of their state.

[9] Cf. Gabriele Heinecke, Ärger mit dem Erbe. Reparationen oder der Fall Distomo (Griechenland), August 2000. Available online (various websites).

[10] Cf. Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, 12 September 1990, available on the Internet (Wikisource, search term: “Two Plus Four Agreement”).

[11] The agenda items and results of the Paris Peace Conference, summarised in the peace treaty signed on 10 February 1947, have been extensively documented on the website of the US State Department.

[12] I would like to thank Thomas Bindl and Angelika Ebbinghaus for compiling the statistical materials that provided the basis for the following calculations.

[13] Cf. the debate on the activities of the IARA in the various documentary volumes published under the title “Foreign Relations of the United States” (FRUS), Washington DC, 1946–1950.

[14] Cf. Jörg Fisch, Reparationen nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, München 1992, pp. 319 f.; id., Reparationen und Entschädigung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, in: Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, 6/2000, pp. 687-696 (table on p. 691).

[15] In the debate on this phenomenon, it is frequently overlooked that the “invention” and elaboration both of individual claims to compensation and of the claims of specific, clearly defined social groups only began when comprehensive reparation payments were subjected to growing restrictions as a result of the Cold War.


[16] For instance, in his well known expert opinion on the compensation of forced labourers, Thomas Kuczynski justifiedly combined the cost of living index (inflator) with the wage index (deflator), calculating a mean value on the basis of the two. Cf. Thomas Kuczynski, Brosamen vom Herrentisch, Berlin 2004.

Conference 2010 Papers

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

“Conference 2010 Papers”

Themes on Hellenic Language and Culture Contributed to the 15th Annual Educational Forum/Conference of the American Foundation for Greek Language and Culture, by the Advisory Council on Hellenic Education of the Hellenic Link, Inc.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

In three sessions of the AFGLC Conference,The Hellenic Link, Inc. had the privilege and the opportunity to bring into focus and discuss several issues, considered pivotal for putting the Greek language and Culture on the road to preservation and blossom in 21st Century America .

1) “Aligning Greek Language Teaching with U.S. National Standards” was the theme presented by Dr. Vasiliki Tsigas-Fotinis. In her paper, Dr. Fotinis deals with the rationale to develop principles of teaching/learning Greek, which would enable the inclusion of Greek in the repertory of foreign languages currently taught in American public and private schools. She also deals with the need to establish criteria for valid training and certification of teachers of Greek.  Interestingly for the community of Hellene educators, she came forward with a proposal for a collaborative project to work on the prerequisites as well as for the development of teaching standards applicable to Greek.

An outline of her proposal was available at the service table of the relevant session of the Conference.

2) Employing Technology as a Conduit to Enhance, Promote and Disseminate Less Commonly Taught Languages:  The Case of Modern Greek” (in three parts)

Two presentations on methods combining the use of multimedia and language technologies and tools in language learning were contributed to the program by the Institute for Language and Speech Processing and its Affiliate “Athena” Research Center (respectively directed by Professors Basil Mertzios and George Carayannis). Dr. Frieda Chralabopoulou of the Institute meticulously prepared the two presentations. Unfortunately, she was unable to make the transatlantic trip for the presentation here. Standing in her stead was her colleague and friend, Dr. Maria Hnaraki, who kindly assumed the task. We are indebted to all of them for enriching our program with resourceful ideas and information.

As to the presentations themselves, the two first papers were presented in the context of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), were centered on “filoglossia+” multimedia courseware, addressed to adult learners of Modern Greek with little or no previous knowledge of the language. The aim of the presentation was to present the basic features of this particular course series, which aspires to increase the visibility of the Greek Language worldwide and also to make it available to Greeks of the Diaspora, wishing to solidify ties to their culture, keep the language of their forefathers alive and thus preserve their Hellenic identity.

In the Workshop, four applications addressed to English speaking foreigners who are interested in the Greek language and culture and/or to the Greeks of the Diaspora were presented. The applications, all related to Greek language learning, include (i) filoglossia+(φιλογλωσσία+), a four multimedia CD-ROM series with English language support targeting English-speaking learners of Modern Greek, (ii) XENION lexicon, a bilingual and bi- directional(Greek-English/English-Greek)dictionary and (iii) Nea Logomatheia (Νέα Λογομάθεια) addressed to Greek students of primary and lower secondary education. Regarding the Greek culture, SAPPHO (ΣΑΠΦΩ), a DVD-ROM series which constitutes a thesaurus of knowledge about the Greek islands, was presented.

3) “Tools of Longitudinal Student Exposure to Greek Language and Culture”

Appropriately for the Conference Theme, “Tools of Longitudinal Student Exposure to Greek Language and Culture.”  Dr. Nikos Metallinos has talked about  From the basis of his Hellenic Studies Unit at Concordia University in Montreal , he has drawn a blue print for upper level graduate studies which will graduate competent Greek teachers for the Canadian and American schools. With support of the administration of his institution and the Hellenic community of Montreal , he plans action for the reversal of the problem of continued decline in Greek school enrollments with the antidote of introducing curricular improvements securing an academic preparation of Greek teachers with solid knowledge and teaching leadership potential.

4) “Modular Teaching of Hellenic Cultural Themes:  The Crucial Link Connecting Content and Pedagogy”

Dr. Constantine Hatzidimitriou in his paper has overviewed the evolution of Hellenic Studies in the United States at the elementary, secondary and higher education levels in both private and public institutions. He observed that the prevailing pattern of teaching has been one of isolation, and non-alignment of resources, scholarship and pedagogy, between lower and higher education and between the private and public sectors. He further expressed the view that this non-alignment has resulted in a systemic failure to link the content of Hellenic Studies to major themes and subject matter in the American educational mainstream, especially in context of the public elementary and secondary schools. Citing specific examples, he went on to propose that one way to help reverse this marginalization and decline is to institute a modular approach to teaching core subjects of Hellenic Culture, utilizing solid interdisciplinary links between academic specialists and the sectors of elementary and secondary private and public school systems.

5) “Hellenic Paedeia: College Level Education for High School Students”

In his paper, Dr. Dean Lomis was preoccupied with the concern to be able to associate Greek American youth with the roots of their cultural heritage. For teen age Americans, including Greek-Americans, he envisages a Greek language and culture, college-level education, while they are still in senior high school. The relevant program that he proposes embodies two educational elements: one remedial, familiarizing the student with the Greek language, cultural heritage and ethos, while the second, utilitarian with educational cost-effective characteristics , offers academic credits to enhance their collegiate studies. To review the suggested structure of the program, curriculum distribution, adjunct faculty status and recruitment, tuition and expense arrangements, academic credit, and advanced college placement considerations, reference is made to the paper itself which follows. Success of this program will hinge on the academic institution with a viable Hellenic Studies program, which would provide the focus of leadership and guidance. As such, the USF, the hosting institution for the AFGLC Conference, is recognized by the author and proposed as most appropriate for the implementation of the innovative program.

I should note that all these contributions had as αφετηρία or point of conceptual departure the

Hellenic Education Plan for America (Hellenic Link Inc., New York, 2005), contributing writers of which were among the active participants in the AFGLC Conference.  The Hellenic Link, Inc. is very pleased to offer to its members and the community at large the benefit of the ideas and suggestions of the esteemed colleagues who expressed them in detail in these introduced papers.

    Constantine J. Efthymiou, PhD

    President, Hellenic Link, Inc. and

    Coordinator of its Advisory Council on Hellenic Education

1. Aligning Greek Language

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

“Aligning Greek Language Teaching with US National Standards” 1

Vasiliki Tsigas-Fotinis, Ph.D. (Caldwell College, Caldwell, NJ)

In order to prepare America for the 21st century, the US Department of Education along with subject – specific professional associations has developed National Standards for subjects taught in public educational institutions. National Standards are voluntarily being employed for each major subject being taught in the USA. These content and curriculum standards are guidelines or goals of what is expected to be taught and learned in their respective field. State and local subject standards generally align with the National Standards for each subject. Standards are a prerequisite for establishing criteria needed for teacher training and certification and for the development of assessments.

“With the help of a three-year grant from the US Department of Education and the National Endowment for the Humanities, an eleven-member task force, representing a variety of languages, levels of instruction, program models, and geographic regions, undertook the task of defining content standards what students should know and be able to do — in foreign language education. The final document, Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st Century, first published in 1996, represents an unprecedented consensus among educators, business leaders, government, and the community on the definition and role of foreign language instruction in American education. This visionary document has been used by teachers, administrators, and curriculum developers at both state and local levels to begin to improve foreign language education in our nation’s schools.”


In 2009, the NEW revised 3rd Edition Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century, includes targeted standards for Arabic, Chinese, Classical Languages, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. My question today is, “Should there be national standards for the Greek Language? In addition, should there be national standards for Greek Language teacher training and certification?” “If so, what implications do these questions bring to light?”

Along with the many other notable subjects, NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION have been developed by the US Department of Education as a Collaborative Project of ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages), AATF (American Association of Teachers of French), AATG (American Association of Teachers of German), AATI (American Association of Teachers of Italian), AATSP (American Association of Teachers of Spanish & Portuguese), ACL (American Classical League), ACTR, CLASS and NCJLT-ATJ. [See http://www.actfl.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3392 for actual standards]. The Philosophy Statement of this document sums up its purpose, stating:Language and communication are at the heart of the human experience. The United States must educate students who are linguistically and culturally equipped to communicate successfully in a pluralistic American society and abroad. This imperative envisions a future in which ALL students will develop and maintain proficiency in English and at least one other language, modern or classical. Children who come to school from non-English backgrounds should also have opportunities to develop further proficiencies in their first language.

I wish the last sentence of this Philosophy Statement was in place when I entered public school only knowing Greek from my immigrant parents. Could you imagine the effect of my school giving me the opportunity to further develop my Greek language proficiencies? What a difference that would have made on me as well as on my English speaking classmates.

As is stated in the above Philosophy Statement, Classical and Modern languages are to be developed and taught. Their usefulness is clear. Greek and Latin languages help students improve their understanding of scientific, medical, legal and mathematical terms and their etymology. Knowledge of these Classical languages will help them do better on Standardized tests because they can figure out words and their meanings. Moreover, the more structured and complex a language is, just like music, more synaptic activity occurs in the brain. Advantages of developing such standards for Hellenic Education effort in North America include the enlargement of the possibility of having the Greek language offered in more public and private schools. When I googled “Why Learn Greek”, I found 13,400,000 results entries, a large majority of these web sites like the one that follows make mention of the importance of understanding the New Testament and other classical works in their original language. In http://www.gsbaptistchurch.com/greek/ under The Greek Language it states:

From 13th Century BC “Linear B” Greek, through the “Classical Greek” of Homer, 8th century, and Plato, 4th century, to the Greek of the Bible, called “Koine Greek” or the common man’s Greek, the language is a marvelous form of language, capable of exact expression and subtle nuances.  Christ came when the fullness of time was here (Gal 4:4), and the universal language used to capture and record and preach his arrival and the New Testament he came to offer, was Koine Greek.  Every Christian can benefit from the study of this language.

The American Classical League, American Philological Association, and Regional Classical Associations have developed National Standards for Classical Languages (Greek and Latin). [See http://www.aclclassics.org/pdf/standards.pdf] This brings an especially profound set of questions for the Greek community to address. Should we too as a united Greek community join in recognizing these National Standards for Classical Languages? Should we also develop National Standards for the Greek Language? [Modern Greek officially came to be in the 1970’s] And the biggest question of all, who is “we” in the Greek community?

The national standards for foreign language education center around five goals: Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons, and Communities (the 5 C’s of foreign language education). In establishing national standards for the Greek Language, these five Cs need to be answered with research, detail explanations and agreement.

STANDARDS FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING COMMUNICATION
Communicate in Languages Other Than English


  • Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions [in the Greek language]
  • Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret written and spoken language on a variety of topics
  • Standard 1.3: Students present information, concepts, and ideas to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics.

CULTURES
Gain Knowledge and Understanding of Other Culture

  • Standard 2.1: Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the practices and perspectives of the culture studied

  • Standard 2.2: Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the products and perspectives of the culture studied

CONNECTIONS
Connect with Other Disciplines and Acquire Information

Students reinforce and further their knowledge of other disciplines through the foreign language [Key for Greek language; i.e., vocabulary, medicine, math, science, theater, music…]

  • Standard 3.1:
  • Standard 3.2: Students acquire information and recognize the distinctive viewpoints that are only available through the foreign language and its cultures


COMPARISONS
Develop Insight into the Nature of Language and Culture

  • Standard 4.1: Students demonstrate understanding of the nature of language through comparisons of the language studied and their own [Identify etymological roots of many English words from the Greek Language, and understand how the English language is entering the Greek …] Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture through comparisons of the cultures studied and their own. [Culture in terms of arts, theatre, dance, music, religion, food, dress … has many parallel and distinct conceptual frames]

    COMMUNITIES
    Participate in Multilingual Communities at Home & Around the World

    • Standard 5.1: Students use the language both within and beyond the school setting
    • Standard 5.2: Students show evidence of becoming life-long learners by using the language for personal enjoyment and enrichment.  [Annual celebration of Greek and American Democracy on March 25.]


      In teaching Greek, we are not starting from scratch; the American Classical League has developed a set of syllabi for “Attic Greek” which is used as an outline for the National Exam for “Attic” Greek


      As of now there is no American Association of Teachers of Greek, however, the Federation of Hellenic Educators and Cultural Associations is an umbrella organization for a number of associations of Teachers of Greek, i.e., Greek Teachers Association “Prometheus” of New York Metro area, Greek Teachers Association “Athena” of Illinois, Greek Teachers Association “Iliada” in Philadelphia area, Hellenic Society PROMETHEAS of Washington, DC, Saint Basil’s Academy Teachers College Alumnae Association (S.B.A.T.C.A.A.), Greek Teachers Association of Florida, St. Irene ChrysovalantouAligning Greek Language Teaching with US National Standards” 1




      Each of the American Associations of Teachers of [German, Italian, Spanish, etc.] have their vision and mission statements, by-laws, research on who and from where their language teachers get certified(which are also linked on the ACTFL web site), and how much education their members have, on their websites .  It might be worth our while to see and study what others have done and reflect how some of these ideas could help us with the Greek Language.  Again I stress, that we need to have Greek Language representatives on the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages and other such organizations that promote the teaching of foreign languages. In addition, Hellenic, Ancient, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies programs at the various universities can play a major role in assisting and promoting the future training and certifications of Teachers of Greek.












      The Plan.


      National Standards have been created to begin to improve foreign language education in our nation’s schools. Do we want to improve Greek Language education in America as well?


      1 Paper presented at the 15th Conference/Forum of the American Foundation for Greek Language and Culture (AFGLC), inTampa & Tarpon Springs Florida, February 19-20, 2010; a contribution from the Advisory Council on Hellenic Education of the Hellenic Link, Inc.


      An important suggestion that Hellenic Link, Inc. has been a proponent of is the possible linking of Hellenic Studies programs at some universities with their Departments of Education.  For example, if we look at the website of the Modern Greek Studies Program at Rutgers, we see that this program is linked to several other university Departments (Classics, Religion and other), but not to that of Education.  This link is critical if we are true to our language and its further development.  We need people who know BOTH the Greek Language well and also know how to most effectively teach it to others. Currently, it is encouraging to note that at least one university, the Concordia University of Montreal, is considering actively the development of such interdisciplinary link for its Hellenic Studies Program.This presentation will be enhanced if during a workshop these critical questions could be discussed and the new questions and responses could be documented and circulated. We could initiate a brainstorming session to start filling in and substantiating the 5 C’s for Greek Language learning at this conference. [Have 5 posters where people could offer standard suggestions] A follow up committee should be created to further identify the practical implications and the scaffolding processes necessary for the Greek language to be cultivated in America. I hope the participants of this conference will approve and adopt a recommendation to establish a committee, under the auspices of AFGLC and HL, to study and promulgate a draft of relevant National Standards.—————————————————————–




      In addition to National Standards for learning any language, the proper preparation and training of teachers to teach a language should also be defined nationally. In the US, there has rightfully so been a trend to have all teachers in public schools to have the appropriate certifications and education to teach. Dr. Adam D. Blistein, Executive Director, American Philological Association has sent me a link to a set of standards for Latin teacher training and certification.  The current draft of these standards is found at:

      http://nge.aclclassics.org/. Currently, the State of New York offers a Regents Exam in Modern Greek, and New Jersey accepts this exam as well. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese Department of Greek Education also offers a Comprehensive exam in Modern Greek, found on their web site http://goarch.org/archdiocese/departments/education/exam. Their list of standards and check points of the Greek examination (in Greek) is found at: http://goarch.org/archdiocese/departments/education/exam/STANDARDS%20-%20CHECKPOINTS%20OF%20GREEK%20EXAMINATION%20-IN%20GREEK.pdf . We need to see if anything else exists as well. We need to compile a list of all existing exams, coordinate and consolidate any duplicated effort and determine any mutual and missing links. All parties that offer Greek exams should be involved with establishing national standards for the Greek language.http://www.apaclassics.org/education/Standards.pdf. We need to review these and tailor them for Greek Language teacher training and certification. In addition, we need to work with both Departments of Education and Hellenic or Modern Greek Studies Programs in more colleges and universities in order to guarantee that the appropriate courses needed for state and national certifications of teachers of the Greek Language are offered.
      There will be two major drawbacks for the Hellenic Education effort in North America if we continue to ignore the creation and implementation of National Standards for the Greek Language and for those who will teach the language. One is the sporadic, inconsistent and politically and culturally subjective, and outdated approach to language teaching and learning of the language that largely exists today. And the other drawback is the extinction or the undermining of the “truth that sets us free”. What I mean is this, many classic great thinkers thought and wrote their work in Greek. Greek is the primary source of their archetypal work. If our command and understanding of the Greek language is poor, then the deeper meanings of these great works will be lost or worse yet, left for others to interpret in their own subjective way. The Greek language is ever changing, but always the same. The language vocabulary and structure has changed throughout the years, but its semantic quality has remained substantially unaltered.

“Aligning Greek Language Teaching with US National Standards” 1


3. Longitudinal Tools

Posted by: Editors  :  Category: News & Articles

Tools for Longitudinal Student Exposure to Greek Language and Culture 1
by
Nikos Metallinos, PhD
Professor, Department of Communication Studies
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

Abstract

The constant and massive decline in the enrollment of students in our Greek schools in North America’s Hellenic communities is a serious phenomenon, which needs to be examined. This paper (a) reviews the issue, (b) discusses the means to overcome the problem, and (c) suggests the establishment of Hellenic Studies programs within North American universities, which will prepare, academically, the future instructors of the Greek language and culture.

Introduction

The increased absence, or drop-out of the first, second, and third generation Greeks from the Greek schools abroad is a serious phenomenon, which has raised the concern of the Greek government, Greek educational authorities, and various institutions abroad (universities, communities, churches, civic and professional associations, etc.).  These institutions have created agencies and various programs aimed at boosting learning of the Greek language and culture, as well as meetings, symposia, and open dialogues referring to this phenomenon.  However, the most significant and primary cause of this drop-out or absence of Greeks abroad from the Greek schools has not been given much attention and/or consideration. The fact remains that primary and secondary Greek education of students abroad in the Greek language and culture has been left to either a limited numbers of Greek teachers from Greece, who lack experience of handling classes of entirely native populations of students, or to academically unprepared teachers.

The issue regarding the rapid drop-outs of youngsters from the Greek schools abroad only sporadically has been considered by Greek scholars abroad.  Consequently, literature explaining the reasons of this is scarce.

In her article titled Greek Education Abroad:  Prospects for Rejuvenation, Renovations In Hellenism in the 21st Century, Marina Lykoudis (2002), discusses the issue.  The reasons that cause the drop-out phenomenon, according to Lykoudis are:

a.    The decline of Greek immigrants.
b.    The return of many families to Greece.
c.    Smaller families.
d.    The parents who are the main reason.

It is possible that all four of these reasons have to do with the phenomenon.  However, they are far from being the main reasons, considering that none apply unilaterally to all Greek communities in North America.

In reviewing the publications on Greek related issues in the Journal of Modern Greek Studies Association, one will fail to isolate an article regarding the true reasons for the drop-out.  Some literature identifies plainly the issues (Maskaleris, 2001), however, when it comes to why young Greek children refuse to attend Greek schools the reasons are not existent or refer to certain things such as:  Greece, the motherland, does not help us; we need more Greek teachers from Greece; the youngsters are too busy with the homework of the schools they attend.

The most responsible document on this issue is the publication by the Hellenic Link Inc., An Hellenic Education Plan for America (2005), which provides an in-depth assessment of the issues of Greek education in North America discussing (1) The State of the Hellenic Education in America Today, (2) The Greek Language and Culture Programs of the Church, (3) Classroom Problems and Some Suggestions, (4) Determining the Scope and Sequence of Modern Greek Curriculum, (5) Hellenic Education in the Public Schools of America, (6) The US Academic Institutions and the Hellenic American Community:  Some Early Interactions of Hellenic Education, (7) College Level Courses for High School Students:  A Much Needed Innovation (Efthimiou, 2005, p. III).
As this outline of the document indicates, first, the examination of the issue is restricted to the United States’s Greek education system, which overlooks important developments in other parts of the world such as Australia, Germany, and foremost Canada; second, the issues are raised yet the concrete suggestions for the solutions to the problem are scarce, if not omitted; and third, the heart of the problem, which is the lack of properly educated teachers to meet the challenge and deal with the problem on hand is overlooked.

In summary, the actual reasons for the phenomenon have not been dealt with by the literature and those responsible for the preservation, development, and perpetuation of the Greek language and culture abroad.

The Reasons Explaining the Phenomenon.

The Hellenic Studies Unit of Concordia University decided to explore further and to investigate what might be the actual cause of the decline of the Greek school attendance in North America, devoting its Annual Lecture Series 2008-2009 to exploring the causes and providing sound explanations of this phenomenon.  The theme of the Lecture Series was The Academic Preparation of the Teachers of Greek Language and Culture Abroad.

We attempted to investigate and confirm our initial discussions: whether or not the reasons behind the rapid decline of the Greek schools in North America is due to the insufficient and at times unacceptable background and preparation of those called upon to teach the Greek language and culture to the North American born and raised youngsters of Greek descent.

Experiences as teachers in our Greek schools taught us that to teach, to reach, and to motivate successfully the Greek American young people one needs to understand their environment, the school systems which they attend, and their own culture, traditions, and habits, among various other factors.
On the bases of these realizations, three scholars of education programs dealing with pedagogical issues regarding the academic preparation necessary for future teachers of the Greek language and culture in Greek schools in North America were invited.  What follows is only a brief outline of the major points of each of these scholars (their research papers will be published in a forthcoming Monograph of the proceedings.
Dr. Andre Gerolymatos, Head of the Hellenic Studies Program at Simon Fraser University of British Columbia and founder of the internet program, Teaching the Greek Language and Culture Abroad, provided the following main suggestions:
1.    Teaching the Greek language and culture abroad presupposes the teachers are equipped and knowledgeable of modern technologies, such as the use of the internet in their instructions.
2.    Teachers of the Greek language and culture must be a part of and have knowledge of the cultural environment of the students they teach so that they can use the “language” of their pupils if they are to motivate and capture their attention.
3.    Teaching through the internet has a universal appeal, a vast audience, students and listeners beyond the ones of Greek descent, which allows a universal acceptance of the Greek language and culture.  This, in turn, motivates the Greeks to study their language and culture.
Dr. Shirley Steinberg, Director of the Paulo and Nita Freir International Project of Critical Pedagogy, and Professor at McGill University’s Department of Integrating Studies in Education.  Her lecture was titled Teaching the Neighborhood:  Integrating Distinct Cultures Within Our Public Schools.  The main points of Dr. Steinberg’s lecture were as follows:

  1. As citizens of the modern world we must recognize that the various ethnic minorities are not really minorities.  In fact, they are the main body of the societies we live in.  In other words the Anglophone and Francopohone citizens of the province of Quebec in actuality are the minorities. This is an important fact in the preparation of teachers.
  2. It is for this reason that the academic preparation of the instructors of the language and culture of minority communities must be incorporated and become a part of our general public educational system.  This will unify the teachers preparation across the board.

Such a program will benefit not only instructors and students but foremost the society at large, which will become cognizant of other cultures.

Dr. Hariette Petrakos’, Associate Professor of Education, research interests focus on the reciprocal influences of home and school of children’s development.  Her lecture titled Education Approaches that Enhance the Teaching of Greek Language and Culture, focused on the following issues:

  1. The contributions by parents and family in the preparation of their children to attend the Greek schools is paramount, and should not be overlooked in the preparation of the instructor of the Greek language and culture, as often is the case with the present instructors of the Greek schools in North America.
  2. It should be emphasized that with proper academic preparation, the instructors of the Greek language and culture must be talented; they must love teaching; and they must recognize, deeply and seriously, their responsibilities as teachers.  It is those special elements that will attract the youngsters, and generally all students, to attend and enjoy the Greek schools.  This is something that is lacking from most Greek schools in North America.
  3. One more key educational approach that will enhance the teaching of the Greek language and culture is to engage the students in various other cultural activities, beyond the classroom instruction of the languages, such as theater, dance, music, poetry, art.  This presupposes that the Greek school instructors must be academically prepared to undertake and supervise such cultural activities.  Such activities and this type of curricula are rare in today’s Greek schools, with the exception of the Greek folk dances, which seem to substitute for all the rest.

In summary, these three scholars provided the reasons why and the means through which the problem of rapid drop-out of Greek students from the Greek schools can be alleviated.  What remains is to look at the concrete, practical, and durable ways to overcome it.

The Establishment of Hellenic Studies Programs in North American Universities.

The strengthening and continuation of the existing, and the establishment of new Hellenic Studies programs in North American Universities, is not a new idea of this author.

The literary sources on the issue are numerous.  One has to look at the MGSA Bulletins (2002; 2007; 2008), to recognize the great variety of Hellenic Studies curricula in various North American universities (Iatridis, 2002; Papacosmas, 2007, 2008).  However, regardless of the rich programs in Classic, Byzantine, and Modern Greek Studies, the decline in enrollment is indicative of changing times and misorientation (Galland, 2006; Klironomou, 2006; Pittas-Hershbash, 2006; Tzovas, 2006).  Whereas the former is obvious—we live in a modern technologically-oriented world—the latter needs explanation.

I believe that we need to re-orient our university Hellenic Studies programs to meet the demands and fulfill the needs to create the future instructors of the Greek language and culture, starting from the bottom up.

The continuation, strengthening, and even the establishment of new Hellenic Studies programs in North American universities will not solve the problem, unless these programs create specific curricula which will prepare their graduates (B.A., MA, or Ph.D.), to also become instructors of Greek language and culture in the Greek schools in all levels.  I believe this is a sound, practical, and significant solution to our problem.

The decline of the Hellenic Studies programs (Classic, Byzantine, and Modern), from all universities of North America (even from the elite ones such as Yale, Harvard, Princeton, etc.), is an indication of our need for reorientation.  The market for today’s Hellenic Studies programs graduates is limited.  Consequently, the existing programs are closing due to low enrollments.  On the other hand, the Greek schools of the North America Greek communities need teachers who must be academically prepared to undertake the challenging tasks of teaching the youngsters the Greek language and culture.

If and when the North America Hellenic Studies Programs create such curricula, which will be rich in pedagogically oriented courses, strong in modern education theories courses, and an extended adaptation of new technology based courses, only then the instructors of the Greek language and culture of our North American Greek schools will be ready to meet the challenge of today.

The creation of such curricula will solve both problems.  They will allow the continuation of the Hellenic programs within the universities and at the same time will prepare the teachers of our future Greek schools.

In today’s practical and market-oriented world, we need to adopt and embrace the dictates of technology and multiculturalism, to survive.  The academic preparation of the future instructors of our Greek language and culture abroad can only be achieved if we reexamine and redirect the emphasis of the Hellenic Studies programs of our universities (Lampropoulos, 1984).
This is what we have decided to do as soon as we become a complete Hellenic Studies Program at Concordia University in Montreal, and this is what we suggest that other already existing programs should consider adopting to secure the continuation and achieve the preservation of our Greek language and culture abroad.

References
Efthymiou, C.  (Ed.).  (2005).  A Hellenic Education Plan for America.  New York:  The Hellenic Link, Inc.
Galland, T.  (2006, May).  The Status of Modern Greek and Hellenic Studies in Higher Education in Canada and the New York University Experience.  Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. 24, (no.1), pp. 141-151.
Klironomos, M.  (2006, May).  The Status of Modern Greek Studies in Higher Education:  A Case Study of the West Coast of the United States.  Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. 24, (no. 1), pp 153-164..
Lampropoulos, V.  (1989, May).  Modern Greek Studies at the Crossroads:  The Paradigm Shift from Epiricism to Skepticism.  Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. 7, (no. 1), pp. 1-39.
Lykoudis, M.  (2000).  Greek Education Abroad:  Prospects for Rejuvenation, Renovations In Hellenism in the 21st Century.  S. Constanides & T. Pelagides (Eds.), (pp. 439-452).  Athens: Papazisis.
Iatridis, J.  (Ed.).  (2002). The MGSA Bulletin, XXXIV, ISSN 0047-7702.
Maskaleris, T.  (2001). Saving the Hellenic Heritage:  The Importance of Modern Greek Studies (pp. 25-34).  In N. Metallinos (Ed.), Hellenic Studies at Concordia.
Papakosma, V.  (Ed.).  (2008). The MGSA Bulletin, XL, ISSN 0047-7702.
Papakosma, V.  (Ed.).  (2007). The MGSA Bulletin, XXXIX, ISSN 0047-7702.
Pittas-Hershbach, M.  (2006, May). The Status of Modern Greek Studies in Higher Education:  As Case Study of the East Coast off the United States.  Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. 24, (no. 1), pp. 179-199..
Tzovas, D.  (2006,  May).  The Future of Modern Greek Studies in Higher Education in the United Kingdom:  Lost in Academia.  Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. 24, (no. 1), pp. 201-208.

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1 A contribution from the Advisory Council on Hellenic Education of the Hellenic Link, Inc.